Occurrence of Primidone,Carbamazepine, Caffeine,and Precursors for N‐Nitrosodimethylamine in Drinking Water Sources Impacted by Wastewater1

Abstract: Wastewater impact on drinking water sources was assessed using several approaches, including analysis of three pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) – primidone, carbamazepine, and caffeine – as indicators, and determination of precursor concentrations for the disinfection byproduct N‐nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) using formation potential (FP) tests. Samples were collected in 2006 and 2007 in rivers impacted by wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) discharges, at drinking water treatment plant (DWTP) intakes upstream or downstream from these discharges, and from two WWTP effluents in two watersheds. The levels [10th percentile ? maximum (median)] of primidone, carbamazepine, caffeine, and NDMAFP were 2‐95 (7) ng/l, 2‐207 (18) ng/l, 7‐687 (78) ng/l, and 12‐321 (35) ng/l, respectively. The highest concentrations of primidone, carbamazepine, and NDMA precursors were from one of the WWTP effluents, whereas the highest concentration of caffeine was detected in a river heavily impacted by treated wastewater discharges. The lowest concentrations of the three PPCPs were from a DWTP influent upstream of a metropolitan urban area with minimum wastewater impact. Temporal variations in PPCP and NDMAFP concentrations and streamflows in two selected watersheds were also observed. Furthermore, correlation analysis between caffeine or carbamazepine and primidone was evaluated. The results show that measurement of the two pharmaceuticals and NDMAFP tests can be used to evaluate wastewater impact in different watersheds, whereas caffeine results were more variable.     

DECISION PARAMETERS FOR COMBINED USE OF EFFLUENT DISCHARGES,SURFACE FLOWS,AND GROUND WATER1

ABSTRACT: Decision parameters affecting combined use of effluent discharges and surface flows and ground water available at Gillespie Dam on the Gila River in Arizona are identified and analyzed. Hydrologic, economic, legal, and institutional parameters are considered separately and in combination. The interrelationships of irrigation subsystems, water use functions, institutional involvement, economic and legal constraints are illustrated. Recent hydrologic studies indicate that the natural flow of the Gila River will increase with the discharge of Phoenix sewage effluent and then there will be a drastic decline when the Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station commences in 1985. Competition for any increases in effluent discharges and surface flows could be ameliorated through the combined efforts of existing or reorganized entities resulting in sharing of costs and benefits. The analysis leads to recommendations concerning joint use of facilities, proration of fixed and variable costs, and creation of a mutual water company.     

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS IN STORM FLOW VS. DRY WEATHER DISCHARGES IN CALIFORNIA STORM WATER CONVEYANCES1

ABSTRACT: This research evaluated concentration data for selected water quality parameters in selected California urban separate storm sewer systems during storm event discharges and during dry weather conditions. We used existing monitoring data from multiple regulatory agencies and municipalities originally collected for compliance or local characterization, which allowed systematic assessment of seasonal patterns over a wide region. Long term mean concentration for most parameters in most streams was higher during storm discharges than during dry weather flows to at least 95 percent confidence in 20 of 45 comparative evaluations, and lower statistical confidence in 22 other comparisons. Some regional differences emerged: in four evaluated streams in the San Francisco Bay Area, total concentration of lead, copper and zinc were lower during dry weather than during storm flows to at least 99.9 percent confidence, with only one exception; while the other four evaluated California streams showed the same tendency, but to much lower statistical confidence.     

COST COMPARISON BETWEEN CESSPOOL AND SANITARY SEWERAGE SYSTEMS IN SAUDI URBAN AREAS1

ABSTRACT: Extensive use is made of on-site wastewater disposal systems of cesspools due to the absence of a sanitary sewerage system in Saudi urban areas. This system has caused the groundwater table to rise to a public nuisance level. A health risk has also evolved. There are several infrastructural, environmental, and social impacts from this, resulting in great financial losses. Examples are: surface water flooding, damage to foundations of buildings and asphalt street pavements, flooded basements and added construction costs required for excavation, dewatering, insulation materials, and special cements. Most of these costs are indirectly being paid by the private and public sectors. This study compares the estimated costs of damage and losses with the estimated costs of building, operating, and maintaining sanitary sewerage systems in the cesspool-served areas. The annual cost of the cesspool system, depending on the severity of the adverse impacts, ranges from 2.2 to 4.4 times the annual cost of the sanitary sewerage system. Remedies for these impacts are very expensive, and delays in the implementation of the sanitary sewerage facility will make the damage recovery more expensive, and in some cases, impossible. Thus, it is recommended that highest priority to be given to the sanitary sewerage systems in Saudi urban areas.     

IMPROVING URBAN WATERWAYS IN EMERGING COUNTRIES: AN ACTION PLAN FOR MADRAS1

ABSTRACT: Typically, infrastructure agencies build massive water projects to serve expanding populations in emerging country cities, but collect and treat only a fraction of the resulting wastewater. This effluent often overwhelms existing sewerage systems and fouls waterways. Cleaning urban waterways requires large investments over long terms and the political will to make and sustain them. This challenge - difficult in advanced countries - becomes daunting with the scarce resources and weak institutions typical of emerging countries. This paper presents a framework to structure such a strategy, and applies it to Madras, India. It consists of three parts: (1) setting a vision through a participatory process; (2) macro investments mainly in wastewater treatment that use least-cost methods; and (3) micro investments in small projects that involve local people and galvanize public support. The macro investment, $350 million for Madras, appears very large, but averages out to $66 per capita, far below the $1,000-$2,000 typical of advanced country cities. Micro projects to be undertaken by Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) included an independent wastewater monitoring program, sanitary upgrading of slums along waterways banks, a cattle waste demonstration project, and an industrial pollution survey. Together, a macro/micro strategy promises the funding and political will to achieve a balanced vision of waterways quality.     

MONITORING OPERATIONS PERFORMANCE IN LARGE-SCALE PUBLIC IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN INDONESIA1

ABSTRACT: Different allocation and delivery performance ratios are used to assess operations performance in a large scale public irrigation system in Indonesia. Results from this analysis indicate that field management practices deviate substantially from the official operating procedures. The lack of application of a single, standardized procedure for planning water allocations represents a serious constraint to effective monitoring and evaluating system performance. Underestimated and unrealistic planned allocations becomes the justification for overdiversion of water, and has the effect of undermining the resolve of managers to see to it that actual flows meet planned flows. Miscalculating planned allocations, poor matches between planned flows and actual deliveries, overdiversion and misreporting have economic consequences as well. For example, strict adherence to the standard operating rule during the second dry season of 1987 would have resulted in 19,070,000 m³ less water diverted into the irrigation system from the Brantas River or, at a conservative estimate of $1.78 per 100 m³ water, a savings of $339,500. Scope exists for making improvements in management by closer adherence to the standard delivery rule, which will also facilitate proper monitoring and evaluation.     

ASSESSING STREAM CHANNEL STABILITY THRESHOLDS USING FLOW COMPETENCE ESTIMATES AT BANKFULL STAGE1

ABSTRACT: Stream channel stability is affected by peak flows rather than average annual water yield. Timber harvesting and other land management activities that contribute to soil compaction, vegetation removal, or increased drainage density can increase peak discharges and decrease the recurrence interval of bankfull discharges. Increased peak discharges can cause more frequent movement of large streambed materials, leading to more rapid stream channel change or instability. This study proposes a relationship between increased discharge and channel stability, and presents a methodology that can be used to evaluate stream channel stability thresholds on a stream reach basis. Detailed surveys of the channel cross section, water surface slope, streambed particle size distribution, and field identification of bankfull stage are used to estimate existing bankfull flow conditions. These site specific stream channel characteristics are used in bed load movement formulae to predict critical flow conditions for entrainment of coarse bed material (D₈₄ size fraction). The “relative bed stability” index, defined as the ratio of critical flow condition to the existing condition at bankfull discharge, can predict whether increased peak discharges will exceed stream channel thresholds.     

Assessing the environmental performance of urban wastewater systems using the INSA model: application to the Algés-Alcântara wastewater system, in Portugal

Although the application of complex integrated models to wastewater systems is useful, it is often difficult to implement and not always suitable for the design of new systems or for their rehabilitation. Integrated simple approaches that allow assessing the environmental performance of urban wastewater systems may be advantageous, especially during the initial phases of the system planning process. This paper presents an original, straightforward approach that can be used for planning, design and operation of urban wastewater systems. The INtegrated Simplified Approach (INSA) combines the concepts of performance indicators with mass balances and can be applied to wastewater systems as a management support tool, particularly in situations where there is lack of data, economic limitations or time constraints. The INSA was applied to the Algés-Alcantara wastewater system to evaluate its environmental performance and to simulate the individual or combined impact of the rehabilitation measures proposed, thus defining their priority. The results clearly indicate that, despite the investment already made upgrading the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), the proposed interventions must be implemented to ensure an acceptable environmental performance of the system. In addition, the results demonstrate the significant pollution loads present in stormwater, frequently higher than the pollution loads discharged into receiving waters during dry weather.     

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF REGIONAL SEWERAGE SYSTEMS1

ABSTRACT: A few years ago, many water quality administrators were convinced that large regional sewerage systems, consisting of one large treatment plant and long trunk sewers extending out to various communities, represented the only efficient and economical means of assuring water quality control. In communities favoring rapid development, the provision of sewer service and encouragement of development of new centers along the trunk sewers offered an additional advantage. More recently quite different points of view are arising in certain areas. In parts of New Jersey strong environmental and community resistance has arisen to proposed central plant-trunk sewer systems. The facilitation of new development along the trunk sewers is viewed as a menace by townships not wanting intensive development of these areas. The diversion of effluent flows to trunk sewers rather than septic tanks would dry up the streams which water quality programs are supposed to protect. Both sides to the controversy have mobilized engineering, environmental, economic, and legal expertise and some critical policy issues have developed. Reconsideration of regional sewerage management and particularly trunk sewer policy is required. The decision as to extent of sewerage service areas involves complex and sensitive planning issues. Because of potential conflicts of interest, such decisions should not be left to staffs of sewerage authorities and their design engineers.     

WATER QUALITY CONCERNS AND REGULATORY CONTROLS FOR NONSTORM WATER DISCHARGES TO STORM DRAINS1

ABSTRACT: Nonstorm water discharges to municipal separate storm sewer systems (MS4s) are notable for spatial and temporal variability in volume, pollutant type, pollutant concentration, and activity of origin. The objective of this paper was to determine whether current technical knowledge and existing U.S. policy support an improved regulatory approach. The proposed policy would use type of discharge as a regulatory basis, merging the concepts of allowability of de minimis discharges and type-based statewide consistent rules. Specific research objectives were to comprehensively identify discharge types, characterize their prevalence in California, analyze relevant local and regional regulatory guidelines, and systematically evaluate opinions of experts about potential water quality impacts. Results demonstrate nonstorm water discharges were widespread in at least one sector, industrial facilities subject to a state permit; one discharge for every four facilities was reported in 1995, even though the permit explicitly prohibits such discharges. Clear consensus exists for minimal water quality concern for some discharge types when considering both municipal guidelines and experts’ opinions. In particular, condensate from a wide range of equipment and discharges from fire fighting equipment testing were found to be of low concern. Discharge types with consensus high concern were largely limited to discharges prohibited under other regulations, such as wastewater and hazardous waste management controls. Some discharge types where no consensus was identified, such as landscape irrigation, nevertheless generated concern for water quality impacts and appear to be relatively widespread. Available information supports technical feasibility of the proposed policy because at least some discharge types show strong consensus for de minimis impacts among regulatory guidelines and opinions of technical experts.     

COMPARISON OF PROCESS‐BASED AND ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK APPROACHES FOR STREAMFLOW MODELING IN AN AGRICULTURAL WATERSHED1

ABSTRACT: The performance of the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) and artificial neural network (ANN) models in simulating hydrologic response was assessed in an agricultural watershed in southeastern Pennsylvania. All of the performance evaluation measures including Nash‐Sutcliffe coefficient of efficiency (E) and coefficient of determination (R²) suggest that the ANN monthly predictions were closer to the observed flows than the monthly predictions from the SWAT model. More specifically, monthly streamflow E and R² were 0.54 and 0.57, respectively, for the SWAT model calibration period, and 0.71 and 0.75, respectively, for the ANN model training period. For the validation period, these values were ?0.17 and 0.34 for the SWAT and 0.43 and 0.45 for the ANN model. SWAT model performance was affected by snowmelt events during winter months and by the model's inability to adequately simulate base flows. Even though this and other studies using ANN models suggest that these models provide a viable alternative approach for hydrologic and water quality modeling, ANN models in their current form are not spatially distributed watershed modeling systems. However, considering the promising performance of the simple ANN model, this study suggests that the ANN approach warrants further development to explicitly address the spatial distribution of hydrologic/water quality processes within watersheds.     

Water supply,waste assimilation,and low-flow issues facing the Southeast Piedmont Interstate-85 urban archipelago

Rapidly growing cities along the Interstate-85 corridor from Atlanta, GA, to Raleigh, NC, rely on small rivers for water supply and waste assimilation. These rivers share commonalities including water supply stress during droughts, seasonally low flows for wastewater dilution, increasing drought and precipitation extremes, downstream eutrophication issues, and high regional aquatic diversity. Further challenges include rapid growth; sprawl that exacerbates water quality and infrastructure issues; water infrastructure that spans numerous counties and municipalities; and large numbers of septic systems. Holistic multi-jurisdiction cooperative water resource planning along with policy and infrastructure modifications is necessary to adapt to population growth and climate. We propose six actions to improve water infrastructure resilience: increase water-use efficiency by municipal, industrial, agricultural, and thermoelectric power sectors; adopt indirect potable reuse or closed loop systems; allow for water sharing during droughts but regulate inter-basin transfers to protect aquatic ecosystems; increase nutrient recovery and reduce discharges of carbon and nutrients in effluents; employ green infrastructure and better stormwater management to reduce nonpoint pollutant loadings and mitigate urban heat island effects; and apply the CRIDA framework to incorporate climate and hydrologic uncertainty into water planning.     

Urban water infrastructure optimization to reduce environmental impacts and costs

Urban water planning and policy have been focusing on environmentally benign and economically viable water management. The objective of this study is to develop a mathematical model to integrate and optimize urban water infrastructures for supply-side planning and policy: freshwater resources and treated wastewater are allocated to various water demand categories in order to reduce contaminants in the influents supplied for drinking water, and to reduce consumption of the water resources imported from the regions beyond a city boundary. A case study is performed to validate the proposed model. An optimal urban water system of a metropolitan city is calculated on the basis of the model and compared to the existing water system. The integration and optimization decrease (i) average concentrations of the influents supplied for drinking water, which can improve human health and hygiene; (ii) total consumption of water resources, as well as electricity, reducing overall environmental impacts; (iii) life cycle cost; and (iv) water resource dependency on other regions, improving regional water security. This model contributes to sustainable urban water planning and policy.     

FORECAST UNCERTAINTY IN WATER SUPPLY RESERVOIR OPERATION1

ABSTRACT: This research investigates the benefits of forecasting in water supply systems. Questions relating operational losses to forecast period and accuracy are addressed. Some simple available forecasting techniques are assessed for their accuracy and applicability. These issues are addressed through the use of a simulation model of the Cedar and South Fork Tolt Rivers, where the system is modeled as a single purpose reservoir supplying municipal and industrial water to the Seattle metropolitan area. The following conclusions were made for this system: (1) reservoir operation deteriorates markedly with the loss of forecast accuracy; (2) the optimal length of forecasting period is five months; (3) reservoir operation may be improved by as much as 88 percent if perfect predictive abilities are available; (4) the mean of the historic data is not recommended to predict future flows because Markov methods are always superior; and (5) lag-one autoregressive Markov schemes exhibit about a 9 percent improvement in operation over no forecasting.     

COMPUTATION OF UNSTEADY FLOWS IN THE ALABAMA RIVER1

ABSTRACT: An application is described of the branch-network flow model, BRANCH, to the upper Alabama River system in central Alabama. The model is used to simulate one-dimensional unsteady flows and water surface elevations in approximately 60 river miles of the Alabama River system. Preliminary calibration was made using 72 hours of observed data. Simulated discharges are about 10 percent lower than observed discharges at higher discharge rates and computed flows lag observed flows by about 30 minutes.     

New Criteria for Sustainable Water Quality Management1

Abstract: New criteria, pollutant load of unit area (PLUA), are developed for sustainable water quality management, which not only avoids degrading water quality but also considers the equity of development between different generations. A simulation‐optimization model is established to determine PLUA, in which uses the QUAL2E model to simulate pollutant transport and formulates a linear programming model to optimize the objective of maximal loads (carrying capacity). Two watersheds, the Touchen creek and the Keya creek, both in Taiwan, are taken as case studies. The PLUA criterion is applied to several existing projects which have passed environmental impact assessment (EIA). The results show that if the Hsinchu Science‐Based Industrial Park discharges wastewater to the Touchen creek, the total pollutant discharge of 85.6 kg/day exceeds the allocated load. Consequently, a waste reduction of at least 23.4% is required. Although these existing projects have passed EIA, most of them violate the criterion of PLUA and thus contribute to continued degradation of water quality. This study suggests developing PLUA as a part of the process of strategic environmental assessment (SEA) for watershed management plans and then applying it to EIA as a criterion for new project assessment. Furthermore, if carrying capacities of all pollutant discharges and resource uses can be translated into loads per unit of area, an integrated sustainable watershed management plan can be developed.     

Modeling materials flow of waste concrete from construction and demolition wastes in Taiwan

Material flows of concrete from construction and demolition (C&D) waste in Taiwan have grown considerably over the last two decades, Hsiao et al. (2001). This increased flow puts pressure on limited national disposal capacity and has indirectly caused ecological damage to domestic riparian zones used as sources of natural aggregate. Using existing statistics and literature sources for C&D waste generation in Taiwan we have developed a dynamic model of domestic material flows of concrete waste and employ statistical analyses to obtain projections of future material flows. Our major findings are: (1) Taiwan’s rate of waste concrete generation in 2001 for the residential and commercial construction industry was approximately 2.4 Million Metric Tons (MMT) per year, averaging 0.11 metric tons of waste concrete generated annually by each Taiwanese; (2) Around the year 2009, the national rate will more than triple to exceed the spike in C&D concrete waste generation that occurred after the Chi Chi earthquake 9/21/99, 8.5 MMT. (3) Aside from pilot-scale development of waste concrete utilization technology, nationwide recycling rates remain negligible. Without resource recovery, the volume of C&D waste generation by 2009 is projected to occupy nearly 7% of all existing and planned domestic landfill capacity. A target is established to raise resource recovery rates for waste concrete to 50% by 2005 and a 100% nationwide recycling rate by 2009.     

Nutrient and Phytoplankton Analysis of a Mediterranean Coastal Area

Identifying and quantifying the key anthropogenic nutrient input sources are essential to adopting management measures that can target input for maximum effect in controlling the phytoplankton biomass. In this study, three systems characterized by distinctive main nutrient sources were sampled along a Mediterranean coast transect. These sources were groundwater discharge in the Ahuir area, the Serpis river discharge in the Venecia area, and a submarine wastewater outfall 1,900 m from the coast. The study area includes factors considered important in determining a coastal area as a sensitive area: it has significant nutrient sources, tourism is a major source of income in the region, and it includes an area of high water residence time (Venecia area) which is affected by the harbor facilities and by wastewater discharges. We found that in the Ahuir and the submarine wastewater outfall areas, the effects of freshwater inputs were reduced because of a greater water exchange with the oligotrophic Mediterranean waters. On the other hand, in the Venecia area, the highest levels of nutrient concentration and phytoplankton biomass were attributed to the greatest water residence time. In this enclosed area, harmful dinoflagellates were detected (Alexandrium sp. and Dinophysis caudata). If the planned enlargement of the Gandia Harbor proceeds, it may increase the vulnerability of this system and provide the proper conditions of confinement for the dinoflagellate blooms’ development. Management measures should first target phosphorus inputs as this is the most potential-limiting nutrient in the Venecia area and comes from a point source that is easier to control. Finally, we recommend that harbor environmental management plans include regular monitoring of water quality in adjacent waters to identify adverse phytoplankton community changes.     

Flavour Industry Wastewater Management Case Study

Summary This study is carried out to propose an appropriate treatment technology for wastewater discharged from a flavor production factory. Industrial wastewater discharged from this factory ranges between 50–70 m³/d with an average value of 60 m³/d. The major source of pollution in this factory is due to cleaning of the vessels therefore the treatment has been carried out on the end-of pipe wastewater. The wastewater is characterized by high values of COD, BOD, TSS and Oil and grease 4646, 2298, 1790 and 626 mg/l respectively. Primary sedimentation of the wastewater for four hours reduced the COD, BOD, TSS and Oil and grease by 43, 47, 80 and 74%, respectively. For the treatment of the produced wastewater, the biological treatment process such as activated sludge, rotating biological contactor (RBC), up-flow anaerobic sludge bed reactor (UASB) have been selected. The results from each treatment process proved to be efficient for the treatment of such wastewater. The treated wastewater characteristics are in compliance with the Egyptian law which regulates the discharge of industrial wastewater to the sewerage system. The RBC was selected and installed by the factory as it has the advantage of low operating and maintenance costs. The factory RBC performance was monitored; characteristics of the treated effluent in terms of oil and grease, COD, BOD and TSS were 27, 362, 139 and 95 mg/l, respectively.     

A MODEL FOR PLANNING AND LOCATION OF ON-SITE WASTE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS1

Abstract: A model that incorportaes performace data about data about several wastewater management systems is discussed. From these data the excepted behavior of an individual wastewater system or group of systems can be product of the performace probabilities of its individual components. The modeel can be used on a regional scale facilitating land use planning by allowing accurate estimates of performance for a prospective wastewater management system. At this scale it can allow the impact evaluation of new wastewater technology on land use in a region.