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Cover : Our Lord's candle (Yucca whipplei) occurs in southern California (U.S.A.) and the southwestern Mojave Desert. Several subspecies are restricted to particular geographic locations or floristic provinces. On pages 672‐679, Ferreira and Boldrini review the history of the concept of endemism as it applies to plants. They emphasize that lack of standardization of the geographic extent of endemism complicates classification of species as endemic. On pages 708‐715, Geyer et al. present a method of classifying stresses from climate change that affect different levels of biological organization. Probabilities of persistence of endemic taxa are expected to be highly affected by climate change. Cover image © 2011 Tim Laman. Photographer : Tim Laman ( http://www.TimLaman.com ) is a field biologist and wildlife photojournalist with a Ph.D. from Harvard University. Since 1987, the focus of his scientific research and photography has been the rainforests of Borneo and the Asia‐Pacific region. He is a regular contributor to National Geographic and has published 18 articles in that magazine on topics ranging from endangered species to regions of high species richness under intense pressure from human activities. Tim has also published more than a dozen scientific articles related to rainforest ecology and ornithology. He has a reputation for successfully capturing elusive and critically endangered species in his photographs.     

Considering extinction of dependent species during translocation, ex situ conservation, and assisted migration of threatened hosts

Translocation, introduction, reintroduction, and assisted migrations are species conservation strategies that are attracting increasing attention, especially in the face of climate change. However, preventing the extinction of the suite of dependent species whose host species are threatened is seldom considered, and the effects on dependent species of moving threatened hosts are unclear. There is no published guidance on how to decide whether to move species, given this uncertainty. We examined the dependent-host system of 4 disparate taxonomic groups: insects on the feather-leaf banksia (Banksia brownii), montane banksia (B. montana), and Stirling Range beard heath (Leucopogon gnaphalioides); parasites of wild cats; mites and ticks on Duvaucel's gecko (Hoplodactylus duvaucelii) and tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus); and internal coccidian parasites of Cirl Bunting (Emberiza cirlus) and Hihi (Notiomystis cincta). We used these case studies to demonstrate a simple process for use in species- and community-level assessments of efforts to conserve dependents with their hosts. The insects dependent on Stirling Range beard heath and parasites on tigers (Panthera tigris) appeared to represent assemblages that would not be conserved by ex situ host conservation. In contrast, for the cases of dependent species we examined involving a single dependent species (internal parasites of birds and the mite Geckobia naultina on Duvaucel's gecko), ex situ conservation of the host species would also conserve the dependent species. However, moving dependent species with their hosts may be insufficient to maintain viable populations of the dependent species, and additional conservation strategies such as supplementing populations may be needed.     

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Cover: A poster of the Ivory‐billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) decorates the wall of a restaurant in Brinkley, Arkansas (U.S.A.). The town is located near where the bird was reportedly sighted in 2004, 60 years after its presumed extinction. Th ree papers in this issue present new methods to estimate whether species are extinct. On pages 47‐56, Gotelli et al. introduce a statistical method for estimating the probability of species persistence from the temporal sequence of collection dates of museum specimens. Application of the method to a case study of the Ivory‐billed Woodpecker suggests there is virtually no chance the species is currently extant within its historical range in the southeastern United States. On pages 180‐184, Solow et al. describe a Bayesian method that formally accounts for species records of uncertain validity. They used a recently published record of sightings of the Ivory‐billed Woodpecker to illustrate their method. Their results were consistent with the conclusion that the species is extinct, but did not provide a clear estimate of the time of extinction. On pages 57‐67, Fisher and Blomberg outline how to estimate the probability that species with few records or recent last‐sighting dates are extinct. Cover image © 2012 Joel Sartore. Photographer: During more than 20 years with the National Geographic Society, Joel Sartore ( http://www.joelsartore.com ) has covered topics from the Amazon rainforest to beer‐drinking, mountain‐racing. firefighters in the United Kingdom. His work focuses on endangered species, natural history, and land use. Joel's books include Photographing Your Family, Face to Face with Grizzlies, Nebraska: Under a Big Red Sky, RARE: Portraits of America's Endangered Species, and, most recently, Let's Be Reasonable. In addition to his work for National Geographic, Joel has completed assignments for Audubon Magazine, Time, Life, Newsweek, and Sports Illustrated and has contributed to numerous book projects. Joel and his work have been the subject of several national broadcasts in the United States, including National Geographic's Explorer, NBC Nightly News, NPR's Weekend Edition, and an hour‐long PBS documentary. He is a regular contributor to the CBS Sunday Morning Show.     

Identifying and Managing Threatened Invertebrates through Assessment of Coextinction Risk

Abstract: Invertebrates with specific host species may have a high probability of extinction when their hosts have a high probability of extinction. Some of these invertebrates are more likely to go extinct than their hosts, and under some circumstances, specific actions to conserve the host may be detrimental to the invertebrate. A critical constraint to identifying such invertebrates is uncertainty about their level of host specificity. We used two host‐breadth models that explicitly incorporated uncertainty in the host specificity of an invertebrate species. We devised a decision protocol to identify actions that may increase the probability of persistence of a given dependent species. The protocol included estimates from the host‐breadth models and decision nodes to identify cothreatened species. We applied the models and protocol to data on 1055 insects (186 species) associated with 2 threatened (as designated by the Australian Government) plant species and 19 plant species that are not threatened to determine whether any insect herbivores have the potential to become extinct if the plant becomes extinct. According to the host‐breadth models, 18 species of insect had high host specificity to the threatened plant species. From these 18 insects, the decision protocol highlighted 6 species that had a high probability of extinction if their hosts were to become extinct (3% of all insects examined). The models and decision protocol have added objectivity and rigor to the process of deciding which dependent invertebrates require conservation action, particularly when dealing with largely unknown and speciose faunas.     

Priority Wetland Invertebrates as Conservation Surrogates

Abstract: Invertebrates are important functionally in most ecosystems, but seldom appraised as surrogate indicators of biological diversity. Priority species might be good candidates; thus, here we evaluated whether three freshwater invertebrates listed in the U.K. Biodiversity Action Plan indicated the richness, composition, and conservation importance of associated wetland organisms as defined respectively by their alpha diversity, beta diversity, and threat status. Sites occupied by each of the gastropods Segmentina nitida, Anisus vorticulus, and Valvata macrostoma had greater species richness of gastropods and greater conservation importance than other sites. Each also characterized species assemblages associated with significant variations between locations in alpha or beta diversity among other mollusks and aquatic macrophytes. Because of their distinct resource requirements, conserving the three priority species extended the range of wetland types under management for nature conservation by 18% and the associated gastropod niche‐space by around 33%. Although nonpriority species indicated variations in richness, composition, and conservation importance among other organisms as effectively as priority species, none characterized such a wide range of high‐quality wetland types. We conclude that priority invertebrates are no more effective than nonpriority species as indicators of alpha and beta diversity or conservation importance among associated organisms. Nevertheless, conserving priority species can extend the array of distinct environments that are protected for their specialized biodiversity and environmental quality. We suggest that this is a key role for priority species and conservation surrogates more generally, and, on our evidence, can best be delivered through multiple species with contrasting habitat requirements.     

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Cover: Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) swim upriver to Kuril Lake on Russia's remote Kamchatka Peninsula, the most productive spawning area for the species in the western Pacific. On pages 1075—1079, Charles Conn reflects on the state and future of conservation science from his perspective as an environmental grant maker whose career began in high‐profile internet businesses. His work on wild salmon ecosystems highlights the effectiveness of aligning biological and economic values held by society. Conn suggests that implementation of national sustainability policies, international certification regimes, and changes in resource access and governance may change patterns of human consumption and achieve conservation objectives in the coming decades. Cover image © 2011 Igor Shpilenok. Photographer: Igor Shpilenok travels across Russia documenting its nature reserves, national parks, and wild places. Shpilenok drove the creation in 1987 of a strict nature reserve, the Bryansky Les Zapovednik, which conserves floodplains, forests, and nesting habitat of the rare Black Stork (Ciconia nigra). During the 11 years Shpilenok managed Bryansky Les Zapovednik, he and his colleagues led the designation process for another 12 nature reserves. Shpilenok is a regular contributor to National Wildlife, Ranger Rick, Russian Life, National Geographic–Russia, Canadian Wildlife, Geo–Germany, and BBC Wildlife. His photographs twice were awarded first prize in the BBC Wildlife Photographer of the Year competition, one in 2006 and one in 2009. In 2008 Shpilenok and his wife, nature writer Laura Williams, published their memoir Th e Storks' Nest.     

Responses of Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) to Removal of Introduced Pacific Rats from Islands

Abstract:  Invasive mammalian predators such as rats are now widespread on islands, but hypotheses about their effects have rarely been tested. Circumstantial evidence from New Zealand indicates that, when introduced to islands, Pacific rats ( Rattus exulans ) have negative effects on endemic plants, invertebrates, birds, and reptiles, including the tuatara ( Sphenodon punctatus ). We tested the effects of Pacific rats on tuatara by comparing the demographic structure and body condition of tuatara populations on three islands before and after removal of rats and on a fourth island where rats remained. In the presence of rats, juvenile tuatara constituted on average 0–5% of the sample tuatara populations. When Pacific rats were removed after at least 200 years' occupancy, the proportion of juvenile tuatara increased 3.5- to 17-fold and body condition of adult males and females also improved (sometimes dramatically). We predict that, unless Pacific rats are removed from Taranga Island, the tuatara population will collapse because of low population density and the lack of juvenile recruitment. Our results demonstrate that when invasive species exert subtle effects on recruitment and body condition, the effects on populations of long-lived endemic species may only become apparent long after the invasion.     

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Cover: African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Amboseli National Park, Kenya. On pages 1002–1010, Wittemyer examines relations between African elephant mortality and human‐caused wounds and measures of local economic conditions, macroeconomic conditions, and primary productivity. When cattle prices in pastoralist Samburu, Kenya, were low, human‐caused wounds to and adult mortality of elephants increased. Changes in gross domestic product in Kenya and East Asia, the primary markets for ivory, did not explain significant variation in mortality. Results suggest that in some cases, economic metrics are associated with changes in human use of and resulting effects on natural resources. Cover image © 2011 Art Wolfe. Photographer: For the past 30 years, Art Wolfe has worked in hundreds of locations spanning all continents. His photographic style draws on both art and journalism to document his subjects and educate his viewers. His goal is to obtain public support for conservation by focusing on what is beautiful on Earth. Wolfe has published over 60 books for adults and children, including The Living Wild, Vanishing Act, Edge of the Earth–Corner of the Sky, and The Art of Photographing Nature. His book Light on the Land was a gift of state during the Clinton administration, and he has received awards from diverse organizations, including the National Outdoor Book Awards and Graphis. Wolfe is a recipient of the Photographic Society of America's Progress Medal and the first Rachel Carson Award from the National Audubon Society.     

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Cover: Muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) in Arctic Alaska. For muskoxen and other large mammals, trait sizes can be measured noninvasively and relatively inexpensively in photographs. Such data are highly accurate and can be used to inform conservation policy (see pages 769‐777). Photographer: Art Wolfe ( http://www.artwolfe.com ) has worked in hundreds of locations spanning all continents. His photographic style draws on both art and journalism to document his subjects and educate his viewers. His goal is to obtain public support for conservation by focusing on what is beautiful on Earth. Wolfe has published over 60 books for adults and children, including The Living Wild, Vanishing Act, Edge of the Earth—Corner of the Sky, and The Art of Photographing Nature. His book Light on the Land was a gift of state during the Clinton administration, and he has received awards from diverse organizations, including the National Outdoor Book Awards and Graphis. Wolfe is a recipient of the Photographic Society of America's Progress Medal and the . rst Rachel Carson Award from the National Audubon Society.     

Species and Cultural Conservation in New Zealand: Maori Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Tuatara

Abstract:  Traditional ecological knowledge can be highly informative and integrated with complementary scientific knowledge to improve species management. This is especially true for abundant species with which indigenous peoples have frequent interactions (e.g., through harvest), but has been studied less frequently in isolated or declining species. We examined Maori traditional ecological knowledge of tuatara ( Sphenodon spp., reptiles that resemble lizards but are the last living representatives of the order Sphenodontia) through semidirected interviews of elders of Te Atiawa, Ngati Koata, and Ngati Wai Iwi (similar to tribes), the guardians of several islands currently inhabited by tuatara. Maori are indigenous to New Zealand, having settled 800 to 1000 years ago. Tuatara are endemic to New Zealand, have declined in numbers since human settlement, and are now restricted to 37 offshore islands. The detail and volume of tuatara traditional ecological knowledge were less than that recorded in studies of more abundant or accessible species. In addition, traditional knowledge of the cultural significance of tuatara was more common and detailed among the elders than traditional knowledge of tuatara biology or ecology. The traditional knowledge collected, however, provided the first evidence of seven former sites of tuatara occupation, suggested five additional sites tuatara may currently occupy, contained novel hypotheses for scientific testing, and described tuatara cultural roles that have not been reported previously. We conclude that, in at least some cases, traditional ecological knowledge may persist as species decline and may serve as a valuable source of ecological information for conservation .     

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Cover: Lappet‐faced (Torgos tracheliotus), Rüppell's (Gyps rueppellii), and White‐backed (Gyps africanus) Vultures feeding on the carcass of a Grant's gazelle (Gazella granti) recently killed by a cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) at Ol Pejeta Conservancy, Laikipia, Kenya (October 2010). Vultures (Accipitridae and Cathartidae) are the only known obligate scavengers. On pages 453‐460, Ogada et al. present evidence that effects of decreases in abundances of vultures may include longer persistence of carcasses and increasing abundance of and contact among facultative scavengers at these carcasses. Such changes could increase rates of transmission of infectious diseases among mammalian carnivores, with carcasses serving as hubs of infection. Cover image © 2012 Tui De Roy. Photographer: Tui De Roy ( http://www.tuideroy.com ) is a founding fellow of the International League of Conservation Photographers. Her work has been published in over 30 countries. She has authored 14 large‐format natural history books on the Galápagos Islands, Andes, Antarctica, New Zealand, and the world's albatrosses and is producing a volume on penguins. Tui founded Th e Roving Tortoise Nature Photography ( http://www.rovingtortoise.co.nz ) in partnership with Mark Jones. She has spent most of her life in the Galápagos Islands, is a former member of the board of directors of the Charles Darwin Foundation, and works in close association with Galápagos National Park to document the islands' landscapes and their rare species. Tui currently lives in New Zealand, where she is patron of the New Zealand chapter of Friends of Galapagos.     

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Cover: Tree pincushion (Leucospermum conocarpodendron viridum), a member of the family Proteaceae and the largest member of its genus, Cape of Good Hope National Park, South Africa. On pages 593‐601, Tucker et al. explore differences in the species richness, phylogenetic diversity, and evolutionary distinctiveness of Proteaceae species in the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa. They found that species richness and phylogenetic diversity typically were highly correlated, but sites with high phylogenetic diversity were more spatially extensive than sites with high species richness. Rare species generally had high levels of evolutionary distinctiveness. Sites near the southern edge of the Cape Floristic Region were occupied by species with high levels of evolutionary distinctiveness and limited geographic ranges, but those sites were not assigned high conservation‐priority rankings on the basis of species richness or phylogenetic distinctiveness. Photographer: Photographer and conservationist Jaime Rojo ( http://www.jaime‐rojo.com ) believes visual storytelling is a powerful tool for conservation. Since moving to Mexico from his native Spain 8 years ago, Jaime has worked with diverse environmental nongovernmental organizations while developing his career as a photographer. He has participated in numerous conservation initiatives including the promotion of El Carmen Big Bend Conservation Corridor, a transboundary protected area along the border between Mexico and the United States; a campaign to protect the San Pedro Mezquital, the last free‐flowing river in the western Sierra Madre; and the celebration of WILD9, the ninth World Wilderness Congress, for which he was executive director in Mexico. Rojo is a trustee of Th e WILD Foundation and an associate of the International League of Conservation Photographers.     

Significance of Specimen Databases from Taxonomic Revisions for Estimating and Mapping the Global Species Diversity of Invertebrates and Repatriating Reliable Specimen Data

Abstract:  We argue that the millions of specimen-label records published over the past decades in thousands of taxonomic revisions are a cost-effective source of information of critical importance for incorporating invertebrates into biodiversity research and conservation decisions. More specifically, we demonstrate for a specimen database assembled during a revision of the robber-fly genus Euscelidia (Asilidae, Diptera) how nonparametric species richness estimators (Chao1, incidence-based coverage estimator, second-order jackknife) can be used to (1) estimate global species diversity, (2) direct future collecting to areas that are undersampled and/or likely to be rich in new species, and (3) assess whether the plant-based global biodiversity hotspots of Myers et al. (2000) contain a significant proportion of invertebrates. During the revision of Euscelidia , the number of known species more than doubled, but estimation of species richness revealed that the true diversity of the genus was likely twice as high. The same techniques applied to subsamples of the data indicated that much of the unknown diversity will be found in the Oriental region. Assessing the validity of biodiversity hotspots for invertebrates is a formidable challenge because it is difficult to decide whether species are hotspot endemics, and lists of observed species dramatically underestimate true diversity. Lastly, conservation biologists need a specimen database analogous to GenBank for collecting specimen records. Such a database has a three-fold advantage over information obtained from digitized museum collections: (1) it is shown for Euscelidia that a large proportion of unrevised museum specimens are misidentified; (2) only the specimen lists in revisionary studies cover a wide variety of private and public collections; and (3) obtaining specimen records from revisions is cost-effective.     

Biodiversity Consequences of Genetic Variation in Bark Characteristics within a Foundation Tree Species

Abstract: The developing field of community genetics has the potential to broaden the contribution of genetics to conservation biology by demonstrating that genetic variation within foundation plant species can act to structure associated communities of microorganisms, invertebrates, and vertebrates. We assessed the biodiversity consequences of natural patterns of intraspecific genetic variation within the widely distributed Australian forest tree, Eucalyptus globulus. We assessed genetic variation among geographic races of E. globulus (i.e., provenances, seed zones) in the characteristics of tree‐trunk bark in a 17‐year‐old common garden and the associated response of a dependent macroarthropod community. In total, 180 macroarthropod taxa were identified following a collection from 100 trees of five races. We found substantial genetically based variation within E. globulus in the quantity and type of decorticating bark. In the community of organisms associated with this bark, significant variation existed among trees of different races in composition, and there was a two‐fold difference in species richness (7–14 species) and abundance (22–55 individuals) among races. This community variation was tightly linked with genetically based variation in bark, with 60% of variation in community composition driven by bark characteristics. No detectable correlation was found, however, with neutral molecular markers. These community‐level effects of tree genetics are expected to extend to higher trophic levels because of the extensive use of tree trunks as foraging zones by birds and marsupials. Our results demonstrate the potential biodiversity benefits that may be gained through conservation of intraspecific genetic variation within broadly distributed foundation species. The opportunities for enhancing biodiversity values of forestry and restoration plantings are also highlighted because such planted forests are increasingly becoming the dominant forest type in many areas of the world.     

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Cover : The Takahe (Porphyrio hochstetteri), once widespread throughout New Zealand, was thought to be extinct by the end of the 1800s. In 1948 a remnant population was rediscovered in a remote region of the country's South Island. As of 2007, 72 birds descended from 18 founders were distributed across 4 islands off the coast of New Zealand. Grueber et al. (pages 1617‐1625) evaluated the effect of inbreeding depression across all life‐history stages of the Takahe. Although levels at each stage were low, accumulated inbreeding depression ultimately reduced long‐term fitness. These results suggest that even species with high historical levels of inbreeding can lose fitness as a result of recent inbreeding.     

Zoogeography of fish parasites of the pearlside (Maurolicus muelleri), with genetic evidence of Anisakis simplex (s.s.) from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

A total of 200 Maurolicus muelleri from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) and the Norwegian Deep (ND) were studied for parasitic helminths. Two different metazoans were isolated from the MAR and five species from the ND. The predominant parasite species in both areas were tetraphyllidean cestode larvae (Scolex pleuronectis) and the anisakid nematode Anisakis simplex sensu stricto (s.s.), the latter being identified using genetic analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS-1, ITS-2) and 5.8S regions of the rDNA. The parasite fauna of M. muelleri from the MAR was less species rich in comparison to ND, due to the deep-sea and oceanic environment. The digeneans Brachyphallus crenatus and Lecithaster confusus as well as the raphidascarid fish nematode Hysterothylacium aduncum were only collected from the ND. This can be explained either by the deep origin of the sampled fish specimens or the lack of suitable intermediate or final hosts in the region. Based on the frequent occurrence of A. simplex (s.s.) around the MAR and the ND, a pelagic life cycle is suggested at both localities, involving baleen and toothed whales as final and pelagic and mesopelagic fish and invertebrates as intermediate or paratenic hosts.     

Implications of Phylogenetic Studies for Conservation of Genetic Diversity in Shiitake Mushrooms

We consider the impact of recent molecular phylogenetic analyses on conservation issues for shiitake mushrooms. Bused on mating compatibility, shiitake has been considered a single species, Lentinula edodes sensu lato . Phylogenetic analyses of ribosomal RNA internal transcribed spacers (Hibbett et al. 1995), however, suggest that shiitake is composed of four distinct lineages. Thus, under a phylogenetic species concept, four species of shiitake should be recognized. A classification of shiitake based on a phylogenetic species concept would convey information about evolutionary relationships and distribution of genetic variation, whereas a classification based on a biological species concept would lack such information. This is a clear case in which new insights into phylogenetic relationships can be used to target areas for conservation action and formulate international agricultural policies. At the heart of our argument is the belief that the basic units of both taxonomy and conservation should be unique evolutionary lineages of organisms identified through phylogenetic studies.     

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Cover : Decisions about production of petroleum are based on economic, social, ecological, and political criteria and frequently are highly contentious. In this issue, Czúcz et al. (pp. 948‐956) discuss the anticipated peak and subsequent decline in production of petroleum, a phenomenon sometimes called peak oil. Few assessments of scenarios of environmental change incorporate limited supplies of resources. Czúcz et al. emphasize that using such scenarios to inform decision making may minimize undesirable effects of petroleum production on ecological systems and human communities.     

Paradigms for parasite conservation

Parasitic species, which depend directly on host species for their survival, represent a major regulatory force in ecosystems and a significant component of Earth's biodiversity. Yet the negative impacts of parasites observed at the host level have motivated a conservation paradigm of eradication, moving us farther from attainment of taxonomically unbiased conservation goals. Despite a growing body of literature highlighting the importance of parasite‐inclusive conservation, most parasite species remain understudied, underfunded, and underappreciated. We argue the protection of parasitic biodiversity requires a paradigm shift in the perception and valuation of their role as consumer species, similar to that of apex predators in the mid‐20th century. Beyond recognizing parasites as vital trophic regulators, existing tools available to conservation practitioners should explicitly account for the unique threats facing dependent species. We built upon concepts from epidemiology and economics (e.g., host‐density threshold and cost‐benefit analysis) to devise novel metrics of margin of error and minimum investment for parasite conservation. We define margin of error as the risk of accidental host extinction from misestimating equilibrium population sizes and predicted oscillations, while minimum investment represents the cost associated with conserving the additional hosts required to maintain viable parasite populations. This framework will aid in the identification of readily conserved parasites that present minimal health risks. To establish parasite conservation, we propose an extension of population viability analysis for host–parasite assemblages to assess extinction risk. In the direst cases, ex situ breeding programs for parasites should be evaluated to maximize success without undermining host protection. Though parasitic species pose a considerable conservation challenge, adaptations to conservation tools will help protect parasite biodiversity in the face of an uncertain environmental future.     

Key Role of European Rabbits in the Conservation of the Western Mediterranean Basin Hotspot

Abstract: The Mediterranean Basin is a global hotspot of biodiversity. Hotspots are said to be experiencing a major loss of habitat, but an added risk could be the decline of some species having a special role in ecological relationships of the system. We reviewed the role of European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) as a keystone species in the Iberian Peninsula portion of the Mediterranean hotspot. Rabbits conspicuously alter plant species composition and vegetation structure through grazing and seed dispersal, which creates open areas and preserves plant species diversity. Moreover, rabbit latrines have a demonstrable effect on soil fertility and plant growth and provide new feeding resources for many invertebrate species. Rabbit burrows provide nest sites and shelter for vertebrates and invertebrates. In addition, rabbits serve as prey for a number of predators, including the critically endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) and Spanish Imperial Eagle (Aquila adalberti). Thus, the Mediterranean ecosystem of the Iberian Peninsula should be termed “the rabbit's ecosystem.” To our knowledge, this is the first empirical support for existence of a multifunctional keystone species in a global hotspot of biodiversity. Rabbit populations have declined drastically on the Iberian Peninsula, with potential cascading effects and serious ecological and economic consequences. From this perspective, rabbit recovery is one of the biggest challenges for conservation of the Mediterranean Basin hotspot.