空气污染对城市太阳辐射影响的试验研究

对太阳辐射强度和空气污染浓度的观测分析表明:晴日太阳辐射的减弱与空气污染浓度密切相关。因此可以用太阳辐射强度的长期变化间接推断当地大气质量的长期变化。     

城市化对城市露水的影响

将城区露水与郊区露水进行比较研究,对研究城市化进程具有重要意义。以广州市区和从化郊区为研究对象,采用布片法收集露水,于2005年8—10月和2006年1月、4月和7月进行观测调查。结果显示,市区各季节露水发生频率的规律与郊区一致,即秋季冬季夏季春季,尤其体现了秋季是露水多发季节这一特点(市区73.3%、郊区80.6%);除市区春季混凝土上凝结的平均露水量比从化郊区(0.016 mm)略高外,市区各下垫面上凝结的平均露水量都比郊区低;在春季草坪和混凝土上,市区和郊区夜间凝结的平均露水量无显著差异,其他季节各下垫面凝结的平均露水量在市区与郊区间的差异均达显著或极显著水平,如秋季郊区草坪、矮灌和混凝土上凝结的平均露水量分别是市区的6.4、10.4、4.5倍,分别达0.070、0.099、0.039 mm;夏季、秋季和冬季,从化郊区各下垫面上凝结的最大露水量都比市区高,如秋季郊区草坪、矮灌和混凝土上凝结的最大露水量分别是市区的4.6、4.1、5.0倍,分别达0.224、0.178、0.139 mm;城市化改变了各下垫面上露水凝结的季节变化规律,市区各下垫面露水的季节变化规律都与郊区相应下垫面露水的季节变化规律不同;市区露水样品酸化率达100%,比郊区露水样品酸化(43%)严重,城区露水样品最小和平均pH值均比郊区低约1个单位,城区最大露水pH值均比郊区低约1.5个单位。结果表明,城市化没有明显影响城郊露水的发生频率,但影响了其露水凝结量、下垫面上露水凝结的季节变化规律及酸度,城市露水酸化明显。     

不同地被类型对城市热环境的影响研究

近些年来我国城市热环境急速恶化,特别是2013年我国南方多地出现突破历史极值的极端高温天气,严重影响了居民正常生活。本研究以深圳为例,运用气象站定点观测方法并首次引入运动样带观测方法对深圳市典型地被类型的气温进行监测、分析,探讨不同地被类型对城市热环境的影响。气象站定点监测实验从2011年6月至今,持续样带监测实验开始于2011年6月结束于2013年7月。本研究详细纪录了深圳市西丽大学城及其周边有典型地被类型的气温、太阳辐射、风向、风速等气象数据。根据不同城市景观分选出5种不同的典型城市地被类型：城市景观水、城中村、商业区、城市绿地、郊区。利用观测获得的具有高空间分辨度和高时间分辨度的实验数据对5种不同的地被类型进行分析比较,结果表明：5种不同城市景观的温度差异明显,商业区温度＞城中村温度＞城市景观水区域温度＞城市绿地温度＞郊区温度。城市绿化和景观水对城市热岛有明显的缓解作用,城市景观水可缓解城市热岛强度0.9℃,城市绿地可缓解城市热岛强度1.57℃。城市绿地的降温效果比城市景观水好,比城市温度的缓解效果强0.67℃。人类的周期性活动对区域城市热岛强度有明显的影响。一周时间内,商业区、城中村、城市景观水、城市绿地的城市热岛强度均呈“U”字形。周末四种地被类型的热岛强度比工作日要高,分别高出0.65℃、0.57℃、0.26℃、0.21℃。     

功能区对热岛发生频率及其强度的影响

通过定点观测的方法对商业区、工业区、社区和森林公园的热岛发生频率及其强度进行了研究.结果显示,功能区对热岛发生频率及其强度具有明显的影响,但在各季节影响规律各不相同.总体来说,商业区和森林公园对热岛发生频率及其强度影响较大,商业区对热岛效应具有正效应.而森林公园对其则趋向于负效应.结果表明,城市各功能区的热岛效应可以通过生态型功能区规划和特殊管理方式进行缓解.     

人为干扰对川西亚高山针叶林土壤物理性质的影响

研究了川西亚高山针叶人工林在几种不同强度人为干扰下林地土壤物理性质。结果表明，随人为干扰强度的增加，土壤中细土（粉粒、粘粒）和大团聚体数量减少，小团聚体和原生土壤颗粒增加；土壤表层孔隙度减小，尤其是大孔隙明显减少；土壤有效水降低，持水供水能力减弱，渗透系数减小。川西亚高山人工针叶林土壤生态功能随人为干扰强度的增加而减弱，建议在最易受人为干扰的造林地区，最好是在造林初期封山育林。图1表5参13     

上海市区与郊区降水的离子组成特征及来源

通过测试上海市区与郊区2008年4月—2009年3月的降水样品中的主要离子浓度值,分析了各离子的浓度变化特征和来源。结果发现：市区总离子浓度值为冬季〉秋季〉春季〉夏季,各离子平均浓度值为SO4^2-〉Ca^2＋〉NH4〉Cl^-〉NO3^-〉Na^＋〉Mg^2＋〉F^＋〉K^＋;郊区总离子浓度值为秋季〉冬季〉春季〉夏季,各离子平均浓度值为SO4^2-〉NH4〉Ca^2＋〉Cl^-〉Na^＋〉NO3^-〉Mg^2＋〉F^-〉K^＋。经定量探源分析,发现降水中离子浓度受人为活动影响严重,市区、郊区降水离子的人为源分别占离子总量的76．8％和71．7％。阴离子中,市区与郊区SO4^2-的人为源所占比例均为最高,cl一的海源大于人为源,且郊区海源比例比市区高10．5％;NO3^-、F^-等均来自人为源。阳离子中,K^＋以陆源为主,市区有部分为人为源;Ca^2＋以人为源为主,且市区人为源比例高于郊区;Mg^2＋以陆源为主,且市区所占比例小于郊区。     

太阳辐射减弱麦田根际土壤酶与有效微量元素的相关性分析

由于大气气溶胶浓度增加地表太阳辐射减弱地球变暗。采用遮光网模拟太阳辐射减弱,设置60%、40%、20%、15%、0%的遮光递度,大田种植冬小麦,测定了冬小麦拔节期、孕穗期、抽穗期、灌浆期根际土壤过氧化氢酶、转化酶、脲酶的活性以及根际土壤Cu、Fe、Mn、Zn等有效微量元素的含量。采用相关性分析、通径分析和主成分分析等方法分析了太阳辐射减弱后土壤酶活性和土壤有效微量元素的相关性。结果显示,太阳辐射减弱,降低了小麦根际有效Fe、Zn和Mn的含量以及脲酶活性。有效Cu元素除了孕穗期有所增加外其它时期也均为降低。过氧化氢酶和转化酶的活性的变化没有明显规律性。太阳辐射减弱使得土壤过氧化氢酶活性与有效Fe、Zn极显著的正相关,脲酶与Zn也达显著水平。Zn和Fe对土壤酶的直接通径系数和间接通径系数都较大。太阳辐射减弱改变了土壤酶和微量元素在土壤肥力中的权重,最大肥力权重脲酶被过氧化氢酶所取代。结果表明,太阳辐射减弱影响了土壤根际有效微量元素含量和土壤酶的活性,提高了土壤酶和微量元素之间的相关性,反映土壤肥力微小变化的敏感土壤质量指标有一定的变化,脲酶的肥力权重降低,过氧化氢酶的肥力权重增加。     

天津城市化对市区气候环境的影响

利用天津市区和郊区两个气象站近50年的地面温度、辐射、日照、风速、相对湿度和降水量资料,系统地分析了天津城市化进程对城市气候的影响,结果表明影响是显著的。受城市化的影响,天津市区地面温度远高于郊区,城市热岛效应明显,市区增温率达0．42℃·（10a）^-1,50年增温幅度达2．5℃,其地面总辐射、直接辐射和日照时数逐年减少的特征也进一步证明了城市化对大气的增温效应;市区近地层风速、相对湿度明显小于郊区,其中,平均风速以0．35m·s^-1·（10a）^-1的速率减小,相对湿度以1．11％·（10a）^-1的速率减小。近50年来天津市区的降水量和降水日数均呈现明显的减少趋势,降水量的倾向率为5．91mm·（10a）^-1,降水13数的倾向率为3．2d·（10a）^-1。     

北京市夏季不同功能区气溶胶数浓度特征

利用WPS宽范围气溶胶粒径谱仪,观测了2014年北京市夏季,二环内市中心和在四环外远离市中心地区的4个不同功能区(交通区、商业区、公园风景区、文教区)大气颗粒物个数浓度的变化.结果表明:市内各功能区大气颗粒物个数浓度均较高,在不同功能区颗粒物数浓度分布中,粒径为10—500 nm的颗粒物个数明显多于粒径大于500 nm的颗粒物;在近市中心的二环内功能区,颗粒物个数浓度分布集中在50 nm和100 nm左右,呈现双峰型;在远离市中心的四环外功能区,其数浓度整体高于二环内,除奥林匹克公园区颗粒物数浓度谱呈现明显的单峰之外,各个功能区数浓度谱为双峰型,但峰值所出现的粒径范围不同.     

上海城市降水径流营养盐氮负荷及空间分布

在野外采样和室内化学分析的基础上，研究了上海市区，郊区各不同功能区内降水径流中营养元素氮的含量水平及其空间分布差异，研究结果表明，城市降水径流中营养元素氮具有较高的含量水平，其中TIN，NH4－N，NO3－N的均值含量分别为7．45，3．14，2．98和1．33mg/L，与同期河流水体中氮含量相比，降水径流中营养元素氮对河流水中氮含量水平具有重要的贡献，反映城市降水径流是一种不容忽略的非点污染源，从城市降水径流中营养元素氮负荷的空间分布来看，在工业区，交通要道，氮含量普遍偏高，而在居民居住区和商业区，氮含量普遍较低，此外，市区和郊区相比，在市区内氮含量普遍比郊区高。     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.     

Human Influence and Classical Biogeographic Predictors of Rare Species Occurrence

Biogeographic theory predicts that rare species occur more often in larger, less‐isolated habitat patches and suggests that patch size and connectivity are positive predictors of patch quality for conservation. However, in areas substantially modified by humans, rare species may be relegated to the most isolated patches. We used data from plant surveys of 81 meadow patches in the Georgia Basin of Canada and the United States to show that presence of threatened and endangered plants was positively predicted for patches that were isolated on small islands surrounded by ocean and for patches that were isolated by surrounding forest. Neither patch size nor connectivity were positive predictors of rare species occurrence. Thus, in our study area, human influence, presumably due to disturbance or introduction of competitive non‐native species, appears to have overwhelmed classical predictors of rare species distribution, such that greater patch isolation appeared to favor presence of rare species. We suggest conservation planners consider the potential advantages of protecting geographically isolated patches in human‐modified landscapes because such patches may represent the only habitats in which rare species are likely to persist. Influencia Humana y Predictores Biogeográficos Clásicos de la Ocurrencia de Especies Raras     

Seasonal dynamics of macro-algae in the South Lake of Tunis

The macro-algae communities observed in the south lake of Tunis are characterized by the predominance of nitrophilous algae which are in the order of biomass importance:Ulva, Cladophora andEnteromorpha. We have noted seasonal changes of alga distribution. The wind appears to be one of the most important factors influencing this distribution. The total biomass reaches a maximum in the spring. Rapid decomposition of the biomass leads to a severe ecological imbalance, resulting in crises of anoxia and fish death. A restoration project has already started. It aims at removal of contaminated muds and the introduction of a new circulation system. The main objectives of this work were to collect information on the distribution and biomass of the phytobenthic communities as a first step in the constitution of a database for further comparison.     

Patterns and biases of climate change threats in the IUCN Red List

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List assessments rely on published data and expert inputs, and biases can be introduced where underlying definitions and concepts are ambiguous. Consideration of climate change threat is no exception, and recently numerous approaches to assessing the threat of climate change to species have been developed. We explored IUCN Red List assessments of amphibians and birds to determine whether species listed as threatened by climate change display distinct patterns in terms of habitat occupied and additional nonclimatic threats faced. We compared IUCN Red List data with a published data set of species’ biological and ecological traits believed to infer high vulnerability to climate change and determined whether distributions of climate change‐threatened species on the IUCN Red List concur with those of climate change‐threatened species identified with the trait‐based approach and whether species possessing these traits are more likely to have climate change listed as a threat on the IUCN Red List. Species in some ecosystems (e.g., grassland, shrubland) and subject to particular threats (e.g., invasive species) were more likely to have climate change as a listed threat. Geographical patterns of climate change‐threatened amphibians and birds on the IUCN Red List were incongruent with patterns of global species richness and patterns identified using trait‐based approaches. Certain traits were linked to increases or decreases in the likelihood of a species being threatened by climate change. Broad temperature tolerance of a species was consistently related to an increased likelihood of climate change threat, indicating counterintuitive relationships in IUCN assessments. To improve the robustness of species assessments of the vulnerability or extinction risk associated with climate change, we suggest IUCN adopt a more cohesive approach whereby specific traits highlighted by our results are considered in Red List assessments. To achieve this and to strengthen the climate change‐vulnerability assessments approach, it is necessary to identify and implement logical avenues for further research into traits that make species vulnerable to climate change (including population‐level threats).     

Parasitic wasps orient to green leaf volatiles

Summary Undamaged plants emit low levels of green leaf volatiles (GLVs), while caterpillar-damaged and artificially damaged plants emit relatively higher levels of certain GLVs. Female braconid parasitoids,Microplitis croceipes, oriented to both damaged plants and to individual GLVs in no-choice tests in a wind tunnel, but seldom oriented to undamaged plants. Female ichneumonid parasitoids,Netelia heroica, also oriented to individual GLVs in a wind tunnel. Males of both wasp species failed to orient to the GLVs. These data show that leaf-feeding caterpillars can cause the release of GLVs, and that parasitic wasps can respond to these odors by flying upwind (chemoanemotactic response), which brings the wasps to their caterpillar hosts. This supports the hypothesis that plants communicate with members of the third trophic level,i.e., plants under herbivore attack emit chemical signals that guide natural enemies of herbivores to sites of plant damage. In this interaction, the GLVs serve as tritrophic plant-to-parasitoid synomones. That parasitoids from two different wasp families oriented to GLVs suggests that the response may be widespread among the Hymenoptera.Mention of a commercial or proprietary product does not constitute an endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture