《水污染防治法》值得深思的几个问题

新修订的<水污染防治法>虽然在明确违法界限、规范企业排污行为、完善水环境监测网络、强化事故应急处置等诸多方面有新的突破,但仍存在立法目标偏低、地方政府环境法律责任和地下水污染防治的监管责任规定不明确、水源保护区管理制度和补偿政策不充分、饮用水源保护区制度难以惠及农村居民、对违法企业的惩处力度不彻底、公众参与的力度不大等值得深思的问题.导致这些问题的原因主要有:水污染防治立法所涉的相关领域技术含量过高、决策者对经济发展仍存在顾虑、地方保护主义、环境责任意识偏弱以及水环境污染行为的司法监督体系混乱等.所幸的是<水污染防治法实施细则>还未颁布,上述一部分问题可以在<水污染防治法实施细则>中加以解决,另一部分内容只有等待修订此法或者其它法律时加以完善.     

我国水污染防治立法理念、机制和制度的创新

面对日益突出的水污染问题,我国现行《水污染防治法》难以适应水污染防治的要求,《水污染防治法》的修订及相关立法问题在国家立法机构、行政部门和环境法学界因而备受关注。对当前我国环境法理论界和实践部门关于水污染防治立法的观点和主张以及相关研究进展和成果进行了系统分析和整理,从为完善我国《水污染防治法》提供立法参考的目的出发,运用概括、分类和归纳的方法,对我国水污染防治立法理念、机制和制度创新进行了分析和归纳,并提出了具体的立法建议。     

俄罗斯土壤污染防治立法研究及其对构建我国《土壤污染防治法》的启示

俄罗斯土壤污染防治立法有其自己的特色,通过研究总结出七点立法特点。中国的土壤污染形势严峻,现行土壤污染防治立法多采分散立法的模式,缺乏系统性、专门针对性和可操作性,既不能适应日益严峻的土壤污染形式,也不能满足对我国土壤污染保护的客观需求。因此,制定专门的《土壤污染防治法》有其必要性和紧迫性。针对我国土壤污染立法现状,吸收俄罗斯土壤防治立法的先进之处,近而得出了构建我国专门的《土壤污染防治法》,树立整体的立法观念;制定明确的土壤保护标准及土壤污染防治标准;建立土壤污染预防制度和土壤污染修复制度;加强土壤的国家监督、国家监测和许可等管理制度;注重环境影响评价制度以及信息公开,扩大公民的公众参与权等几点启示。     

俄罗斯土壤污染防治立法研究及其对构建我国《土壤污染防治法》的启示

俄罗斯土壤污染防治立法有其自己的特色，通过研究总结出七点立法特点。中国的土壤污染形势严峻，现行土壤污染防治立法多采分散立法的模式，缺乏系统性、专门针对性和可操作性，既不能适应日益严峻的土壤污染形式，也不能满足对我国土壤污染保护的客观需求。因此，制定专门的《土壤污染防治法》有其必要性和紧迫性。针对我国土壤污染立法现状，吸收俄罗斯土壤防治立法的先进之处，近而得出了构建我国专门的《土壤污染防治法》，树立整体的立法观念；制定明确的土壤保护标准及土壤污染防治标准；建立土壤污染预防制度和土壤污染修复制度；加强土壤的国家监督、国家监测和许可等管理制度；注重环境影响评价制度以及信息公开，扩大公民的公众参与权等几点启示。     

《水污染防治法》控制手段的反思与重构

文章以主张重视和细分水污染控制手段为前提,以反思和重构现行的水污染控制手段为研究目的。采用了规范分析的方法,剖析现行水污染控制手段存在的诸多弊端;采用了比较分析的方法,借鉴美国在水污染控制中的经验,探析与总结选用水污染控制手段的内在规律诉求。我国现行《水污染防治法》对于水污染的防治虽然起到一定作用,但效果不甚理想,其重要原因在于重视了宏观的立法理念更新和微观具体制度完善,却忽视了中观层面的水污染控制手段的改进。我国的《水污染防治法》虽然历经修订,但其对于水污染的控制手段却一直延循的是以技术为基础的排污标准控制手段。这种手段在内在机理与外显制度上难以实现预期立法目的,它实施成本过高,效率低下,是一种列举而非概括的控制手段,难免顾此失彼。故此,我们的立法修订不能止步于反思和完善具体制度和机制,但更要反思《水污染防治法》的控制手段,重视以水质目标为标准的控制手段,并相应进行具体制度的构建。     

基于府际博弈的跨行政区流域水污染治理困境分析

水资源短缺和水污染是我国面临的重要环境问题.受流域自然整体性和流动性的影响,某一行政区的污染通常可以通过水体向另一个或多个行政区转移.传统理论上,人们认为造成跨行政区流域水污染治理困境的主要原因是经济增长方式、产业结构、环境执法效率和管理体制的障碍.实际上,以上因素难以从根本上解释跨行政区流域水污染的治理困境.文章运用博弈理论对流域污染治理中中央政府和地方政府之间的信号传递博弈,以及流域上下游地方政府之间的污染治理博弈进行了分析,结果表明:在区域利益、信息不对称和缺乏激励机制的影响下,地方政府很难真正履行中央政府的治理政策,而污染外部性和利益冲突则使各行政区之间难以达成合作治理,府际博弈的非理性均衡成为跨行政区流域水污染治理困境的深层次原因.鉴于此,跨行政区流域水污染治理必须理解政府的角色和行为,才能找到有效的治理对策.中央政府有必要增强政策威胁的置信度,提高监督和惩治水平,克服地方政府和污染企业达成利益同盟,并通过重复博弈建立行政区之间的流域合作治理机制.     

国内外典型水治理模式及对武汉水治理的借鉴

通过国内外典型水治理模式的研究和比较,提出武汉市水治理的对策建议。采用了比较和归纳的方法,对日本、美国以及我国上海、北京的水治理模式进行了研究,归纳出强制性水污染治理模式、流域性水生态治理模式、景观性水环境治理模式、综合性水系治理模式四大典型水治理模式。在比较研究的基础上,提出水治理要正确处理好与水生态环境、水污染防治、城市形象、城市文化、经济发展、防汛抗洪的关系的结论。为使武汉市水资源发挥最大经济效益、社会效益和环境效益,提出保护“水生态”、提高“水质量”、建设“水景观”、丰富“水文化”、开发“水经济”、确保“水安全”等对策建议。     

农村环境自主治理模式的研究路径分析

日益严峻的农村环境污染成为中国环境保护工作的新重点和难点.农村污染具有污染源小而多,污染面广两散的特点,政府的大量投入相对于广大的农村来说实在有限,需要反思当前以完全信息为基本假设、以政府为主体的农村环境治理模式.农村自主治理组织具有信息的直接性和充分性以及自发秩序的有效性等方面的优势,农村环境自主治理模式研究成为当前农村环境治理政策研究的新方向.本文以自主治理理论为基础,立足于中国农村环境治理现状,构建了农村环境自主治理模式的研究路径和框架:研究自主治理的基本条件和博弈均衡结构,对应分析我国农村环境自主治理制度的假设条件、博弈关系和政策供给;将自主治理的经济分析和治理结构相结合,在典型调研和面上调研的基础上,研究农村环境自主治理制度运行的关键因素、治理层次,以及典型模式,提出可供我国农村环境自主治理制度借鉴的框架体系;在以上研究的基础上,对我国农村环境的自主治理提出建议,并对土地流转制度下的农村环境自主治理模式进行深入分析.     

城市机动车限行政策对雾霾污染治理的成效分析

自2013年以来,中国频繁出现大规模和持续性的雾霾天气,诸多地方政府不得不采取一系列措施来治理雾霾污染,其中包括广为效仿的机动车限行政策,但其实施效果在不同城市却显示出较大差异性。本文对实施限行政策的11个典型城市的PM2.5浓度进行结构突变点的筛选,并通过控制风速、雨水、湿度、温度等气象因素,建立多元回归模型以分析PM2.5浓度与机动车限行政策的相关性。结果发现,气象因素对于各城市的雾霾污染有着不同的影响。其中,风级、降雨、温度在大部分城市是负向且显著的影响,湿度在部分城市是正向且显著的影响。本文根据限行效果的不同将11个城市分为三类:限行有效、限行无效和限行效果不显著城市。为了进一步考察不同类型的典型城市限行的效果为何不同,选取了北京、天津、西安三个城市从经济、产业、能源以及交通等四个维度进行对比分析,发现不同类型的城市由于城市形态及雾霾成因各不相同,雾霾污染的治理措施也需要"因地制宜"。基于此,本文对不同形态的城市雾霾污染治理提出以下建议:(1)当城市发展处于高经济-低污染形态时,机动车限行政策是雾霾污染治理的有效手段,但治理的根本在于控制城市机动车保有量,优化城市发展职能,降低城市人口密度;(2)当城市发展形态处于高经济-高污染形态时,机动车限行政策不是城市治理雾霾污染的最有效手段,政府应加快产业结构转型升级,优化能源消耗结构,加大污染治理投资力度;(3)当城市发展处于中、低经济-高污染阶段时,机动车限行政策无效,城市发展应注重优化投资结构,转变产业发展模式。     

“水十条”对工业水污染强度的影响及其机制

《水污染防治行动计划》(简称“水十条”)是国家为切实加大水污染防治力度,保障国家水安全而制定的法规。为检验“水十条”的政策影响效应,文章利用2012—2017年全国269个地级市的数据,结合工业化程度、对外开放水平、技术进步、人口规模、水资源禀赋等控制变量,运用双重差分法对“水十条”政策实施是否有助于减轻工业水污染强度进行研究。研究发现:我国中西部地区由于产业结构、技术水平等原因,工业水污染强度显著高于其他地区,“水十条”政策实施显著降低了中西部地区工业水污染强度。通过改变政策实施时间、剔除中心城市、增加控制变量以及剔除严重污染等方式进行重新回归,检验结果依然具有较强稳健性。进一步分析中,文章研究了产业结构以及技术创新的作用机制,发现第一产业比重显著降低,而第三产业显著提升,产业结构得到优化,并且技术创新效应显著加强。结果表明,产业结构升级以及技术创新均为“水十条”政策改善工业水污染强度的有效途径。在空间异质性方面,在环境规制强度较高的地区“水十条”政策对工业水污染强度的影响相对较小;而在环境规制强度较低地区却呈现出较强的抑制作用,主要原因在于环境规制强度高的地区水污染情况原本较好,因此污染强度降低幅度较小。因此,文章认为“水十条”政策能够显著改善工业水污染强度,并且加上环境规制、技术创新以及产业结构优化等手段的辅助能够更好地发挥政策效果。文章的发现为中国水污染防治行动提供了有益的政策启示。     

The U.S. approach to water pollution control

The current U.S. approach to water pollution control is reviewed, with an attempt to identify the origins and significance of its major provisions. The background of the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 and the subsequent division of power between governmental units are discussed.     

AFLP analysis to estimate the genetic contribution of parents to progeny from hybridization between Saxifraga sibirica L. and S. cernua L.

It is shown that the method of amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) can be used to estimate the contribution of parent plants to the genome of the progeny from artificial crosses between Saxifraga cernua and S. sibirica. According to Nei??s (1972) genetic distances between plant groups, F₁ plants are intermediate between the parent species but closer to S. cernua, probably because its genome size is twice that of S. sibirica. Conversely, B₁ plants proved to be closer to S. sibirica, because the hybrid progeny were crossed back to this species.     

Maternal and fetal exposure to parabens in a multiethnic urban U.S. population

Fetal exposure to five parabens was investigated due to their endocrine-disrupting potential and possible impact on fetal development. Body burdens occurring from real-world exposures were determined typically as total concentrations after conjugate hydrolysis in 181 maternal urine and 38 umbilical cord blood plasma samples from a multiethnic cohort of 185 predominantly-black, pregnant women recruited in Brooklyn, New York between 2007/9. For 33 participants, both sample types (maternal urine and cord blood) were available. Methyl- (MePB), ethyl- (EtPB), propyl- (PrPB), butyl- (BuPB), and benzylparaben (BePB) were detected in 100, 73.5, 100, 66.3 and 0.0% of the urine samples at median concentrations of 279, 1.44, 75.3, 0.39, and < 0.02 μg/L, respectively. Median concentrations of MePB and PrPB were, respectively 4.4- and 8.7-fold higher compared to those reported previously for the general U.S. population (NHANES, 2005/6). Listed in the order above, the five parabens were detected in 97.4, 94.7, 47.4, 47.4, and 44.7% of cord blood plasma samples at median total concentrations of 25.0, 0.36, < 0.27, < 0.09, and < 0.10 μg/L, respectively. Free MePB, EtPB, and PrPB were detected in a subset of cord blood plasma samples at, respectively, 3.9, 71.7, and 6.4% of their total concentrations, whereas free BuPB and BePB were not detected. Literature data and those reported here show the urban community studied here to rank highest in the world for MePB and PrPB exposure in pregnant women, whereas it ranks among the lowest for EtPB and BuPB. This study is the first to report the occurrence of parabens in human umbilical cord blood. Maternal exposure to parabens is widespread, and substantial differences were found to exist between communities and countries both in the spectrum and degree of paraben exposures.     

Radionuclide transfer to fruits: a critical review. Introduction

This paper provides a brief introduction to fruit, their definition, classification and geographical distribution. In the following review, the term "fruit" refers not to a well-defined botanical plant part but, in the horticultural sense, to a component of the human diet generally consumed as a dessert item. Plants that bear fruits cover a vast range of morphological and physiological traits. A generic classification of fruit-bearing plants is proposed for use in studies on radionuclide transfer to fruit.     

Radionuclide transfer to fruits: A critical review. Foreword

After completion of the (Validation of Environmental Model Predictions) (VAMP) and (BIOspheric Model Validation Study) (BIOMOVS II) Programmes, the Division of Radiation and Waste Safety of the IAEA decided to promote a new co-ordinated research programme to continue activities in the area of biosphere modelling. As a result, the BIOMASS Programme on BIOsphere Modelling and ASSessment was launched in Vienna in October 1996. The Programme is scheduled to finish in October 2000. The overall objective of BIOMASS is to provide an international focal point in the area of biosphere assessment modelling. There are 3 Themes and 11 working groups in BIOMASS. The objective of the Theme 3 Fruits Working Group is to improve understanding of the uptake and transfer of radionuclides from different sources to fruit. As part of the work programme, a review was undertaken of the experimental, field and modelling information on the transfer of radionuclides to fruit.     

Exposure to coarse particulate matter during gestation and birth weight in the U.S.

Few studies have explored the relationship between coarse particles (PM_10-2.5) and adverse birth outcomes. We examined associations between gestational exposure of PM_10-2.5 and birth weight. U.S. birth certificates data (1999–2007) were acquired for 8,017,865 births. Gestational and trimester exposures of PM_10-2.5 were estimated using co-located PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 monitors ≤ 35 km from the population-weighted centroid of mothers' residential counties. A linear regression model was applied, adjusted by potential confounders. As sensitivity analyses, we explored alternative PM_10-2.5 estimations, adjustment for PM_2.5, and stratification by regions. Gestational exposure to PM_10-2.5 was associated with 6.6 g (95% Confidence Interval: 5.9, 7.2) lower birth weight per interquartile range increase (7.8 μg/m³) in PM_10-2.5 exposures. All three trimesters showed associations. Under different exposure methods for PM_10-2.5, associations remained consistent but with different magnitudes. Results were robust after adjusting for PM_2.5, and regional analyses showed associations in all four regions with larger estimates in the South. Our results suggest that PM_10-2.5 is associated with birth weight in addition to PM_2.5. Regional heterogeneity may reflect differences in population, measurement error, region-specific emission pattern, or different chemical composition within PM_10-2.5. Most countries do not set health-based standards for PM_10-2.5, but our findings indicate potentially important health effects of PM_10-2.5.     

Environmental levels, toxicity and human exposure to tributyltin (TBT)-contaminated marine environment. a review. b_antizar@hotmail.com

Tributyltin (TBT) is a toxic chemical used for various industrial purposes such as slime control in paper mills, disinfection of circulating industrial cooling waters, antifouling agents, and the preservation of wood. Due to its widespread use as an antifouling agent in boat paints, TBT is a common contaminant of marine and freshwater ecosystems exceeding acute and chronic toxicity levels. TBT is the most significant pesticide in marine and freshwaters in Europe and consequently its environmental level, fate, toxicity and human exposure are of current concern. Thus, the European Union has decided to specifically include TBT compounds in its list of priority compounds in water in order to control its fate in natural systems, due to their toxic, persistent, bioaccumulative and endocrine disruptive characteristics. Additionally, the International Maritime Organization has called for a global treaty that bans the application of TBT-based paints starting 1 of January 2003, and total prohibition by 1 of January 2008. This paper reviews the state of the science regarding TBT, with special attention paid to the environmental levels, toxicity, and human exposure. TBT compounds have been detected in a number of environmental samples. In humans, organotin compounds have been detected in blood and in the liver. As for other persistent organic pollutants, dietary intake is most probably the main route of exposure to TBT compounds for the general population. However, data concerning TBT levels in foodstuffs are scarce. It is concluded that investigations on experimental toxicity, dietary intake, potential human health effects and development of new sustainable technologies to remove TBT compounds are clearly necessary.     

Modelling the resilience of Australian savanna systems to grazing impacts.

Savannas occur across all of northern Australia and are extensively used as rangelands. A recent surge in live cattle exports to Southeast Asia has caused excessive grazing impacts in some areas, especially near watering points. An important ecological and management question is "how resilient are savanna ecosystems to grazing disturbances?" Resilience refers to the ability of an ecosystem to remain in its current state (resist change) and return to this state (recover) if disturbed. Resilience responses can be measured using field data. These responses can then be modelled to predict the likely resistance and recovery of savannas to grazing impacts occurring under different climatic conditions. Two approaches were used to model resilience responses. First, a relatively simple mathematical model based on a sigmoid response function was used. This model proved useful for comparing the relative resilience of different savanna ecosystems, but was limited to ecosystems and conditions for which data were available. Second, a complex process model, SAVANNA, was parameterised to simulate the structure and function of Australian savannas. Simulations were run for 50 years at two levels of grazing to evaluate resistance and then for another 50 years with no grazing to evaluate recovery. These runs predicted that savanna grasslands were more resistant to grazing (changed less) than red-loam woodlands, which recovered relatively slowly from grazing impacts. The SAVANNA model also predicted that these woodlands would recover slightly slower under the climate change scenario projected for northern Australia.