Direct and indirect effects of climate and fishing on changes in coastal ecosystem services: a historical perspective from the North Sea

Humanity depends on the marine environment for a range of vital ecosystem services, at global (e.g. climate regulation), regional (e.g. commercial fisheries) and local scales (e.g. coastal defence and recreation). At the same time, marine ecosystems have been exploited for centuries, and many systems today are under stress from multiple sources. Recent studies have shown how both climate change and fishing have caused long-term changes in the marine environment. However, there is still poor understanding of how these changes influence change in coastal ecosystem services. In this paper, an integrated modelling approach is used to assess how the final delivery of marine ecosystem services to coastal communities is influenced by the direct and indirect effects of changes in ecosystem processes brought about by climate and human impacts, using fisheries of the North Sea region as a case study. Partial least squares path analysis is used to explore the relationships between drivers of change, marine ecosystem processes and services (landings). A simple conceptual model with four variables—climate, fishing effort, ecosystem process and ecosystem services—is applied to the English North Sea using historic ecological, climatic and fisheries time series spanning 1924–2010 to identify the multiple pathways that might exist. As expected, direct and indirect links between fishing effort, ecosystem processes and service provision were significant. However, links between climate and ecosystem processes were weak. This paper highlights how path analysis can be used for analysing long-term temporal links between ecosystem processes and services following a simplified pathway.     

Ecosystem services and hydroelectricity in Central America: modelling service flows with fuzzy logic and expert knowledge

Because ecosystem services are generally not produced and used in the same place, their assessment should consider the flows of services from ecosystems to users. These flows depend on the characteristics and spatial distribution of ecosystems and users, the spatial relationships between them, and the presence of filters or barriers between ecosystems and users. The objective of this paper is to map the ecosystem services provided to the Costa Rican and Nicaraguan hydroelectric sectors, which are crucial sectors for national sustainable development and depend directly on hydrological ecosystem services. The paper presents an approach for modelling the flows of multiple services from diverse ecosystems to diverse users through different kinds of filters in a landscape. The approach uses expert knowledge and fuzzy numbers to handle uncertainties. The analyses for Costa Rica and Nicaragua show how the approach helps identify priority areas for the conservation and restoration of forests for the services they provide to the hydroelectric sector. As such, it is a useful tool for defining spatially targeted policies for the conservation of ecosystem services and for involving the users of ecosystem services in ecosystem management.     

Exploring socio-cultural values of ecosystem service categories in the Central Alps: the influence of socio-demographic factors and landscape type

The socio-cultural assessment of ecosystem services has been proposed as a promising tool for eliciting people’s preferences towards ecosystem services. Despite an increasing integration of the socio-cultural perspective in ecosystem service research, little knowledge exists about linkages between landscape and the socio-cultural values people assign to ecosystem services. This paper combines a socio-cultural valuation approach with the use of landscape pictures to analyse and compare people’s perceived importance of the provisioning, regulating, and cultural ecosystem service categories across three landscape types (i.e. larch meadows, spruce forests, and hay meadow). A survey with 470 tourists visiting the region of South Tyrol (Italy) was conducted to link people’s perceived importance to their socio-demographic background and to the landscape types explored. The results show that regulating ecosystem services are preferred over provisioning and cultural services, whereby environmental awareness is found to be more influential than formal education levels regarding the perceived importance of regulating services. The results further demonstrate that cultural background is an important driver in determining people’s perceived importance of cultural services. The underlying landscape types, however, exert an even stronger influence on people’s socio-cultural valuation of ecosystem service categories. This finding suggests that the focus of most ecosystem services assessments on the study area as a whole risks mistakenly attributing differences in people’s socio-cultural values to socio-demographic characteristics only. A better knowledge of the spatial integration of socio-cultural values, however, could help with anticipating the consequences of changes in the landscape and provide better guidance for future landscape planning.     

Local perspectives on regional challenges: jellyfish proliferation and fish stock management along the Israeli Mediterranean coast

The composition and abundance of marine biota in Israeli marine ecosystems are affected by natural and anthropogenic pressures, including blooms of non-indigenous jellyfish and overfishing. While overfishing is itself a major stressor of fish stocks, it appears that jellyfish may be outcompeting fish for scarce planktonic food resources. Beyond this direct impact on fisheries, jellyfish–ecosystem interactions are also important because of the disturbance they cause to multiple users of marine and coastal resources. This paper documents the concurrent changes in the composition of marine biotic communities, including jellyfish proliferation and dwindling stocks of endemic, commercially valuable fish and the rising rate of bottom trawling in Israeli fisheries. The capacity to deal directly with jellyfish is limited by lack of knowledge about their ecology. Therefore, we suggest that bolstering fish stocks and increasing their competitive advantage in the food web may be instrumental in limiting jellyfish blooms. Coordination of fishing and conservation policies is recommended, as are modifications to marine waste management and deployment of submerged artificial substrates.     

稻鱼共生系统生态服务功能价值比较——以浙江省青田县和贵州省从江县为例

石油农业导致生态系统退化与环境受损.人们在寻找新的农业途径时,将目光转向传统农业,开始对传统农耕模式的价值进行挖掘.稻鱼共生是最为典型的中国传统生态农业模式之一,因其历史悠久、景观独特和效益显著而被联合国粮农组织列为首批全球重要农业文化遗产保护试点之一.在数千年的农耕文化演变过程中,同宗的青田县和从江县的传统农业系统,由于受到不同的自然、经济和文化的影响,分别形成了以养鱼为主和以种稻为主的稻鱼共生系统.本文采用市场价值法、造林成本法、替代价格法、大气污染治理成本法和水库工程费用法等,分别对青田县和从江县传统农业区生态系统服务功能的经济进行评估.结果表明,以养鱼为主的青田县直接经济价值比以种稻为主的从江县平均每公顷高近1.70万元,但其闻接价值却比后者低,从江县稻鱼共生系统的气体调节和养分保持价值分别是青田县的1.35和1.59倍.最后,本文提出了提高农民收入的途径,以更好地保护这一具有全球重要意义的农业文化遗产.     

Ecosystem management based on ecosystem services and human activities: a case study in the Yanhe watershed

With activities that alter the structure and function of the habitat, humans have a direct impact on ecosystems and ecosystem services, i.e., the conditions and processes that sustain human life. In this study, 35 townships in the Yanhe watershed in the Loess Plateau of China were selected. The net primary production (NPP), carbon sequestration and oxygen production (CSOP), water conservation, and soil conservation were the ecosystem services selected and valuated. Human activity was quantified by an integrated human activity index (HAI) based on population density, farmland ratio, and the influence of road networks and residential areas. The NPP, CSOP, and water conservation showed a conspicuous spatial pattern fanning outward from the southwest, while the soil conservation showed an obscure spatial pattern distinguished primarily by the peripheral area surrounding the urbanized areas. Total ecosystem services in the Yanhe watershed demonstrated a decreasing pattern from south to north, and the HAI was in proportion to administrative and economic development. Based on the selected ecosystem services and HAI, we mapped the townships of the Yanhe watershed by cluster analysis, and provided sustainable ecosystem management suggestions, tailored to the social-ecological map.     

Levels and trends of polybrominated diphenylethers and other brominated flame retardants in wildlife

In this paper, we review the available data for polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs) and other flame retardants in wildlife, with the exception of fishes from Europe and North America which are covered in more detail elsewhere. More data are available for PBDEs than for other compounds, and these show that some of these compounds have become widely distributed in the environment, being found in samples from Europe, Australia, Azerbaijan, North America and the Arctic. Most available data relate to birds and their eggs and marine mammals, but the results of two food web studies are also included. The detection of PBDEs in pelagic marine mammals which feed in deep offshore waters, including baleen whales, indicate that these compounds have found their way into deep-water, oceanic food webs as well as the coastal/shallow sea examples described in detail. In the North Sea study, the most marked increase in lipid-normalised concentrations of six BDE congeners occurred during transfer from predatory fish to marine mammals. In the St. Lawrence Estuary study, marked differences in the ratios observed between species suggested that some fish species may be able to metabolise BDE99.A number of time trend studies have also been conducted, notably in guillemot eggs from Sweden (1969-2000), beluga whales from the Canadian Arctic (1982-1997 and 1989-2001) and from the St. Lawrence Estuary (1988-1999), and ringed seals from the Canadian Arctic (1981-2000). In the temperate latitudes, from these and other studies (e.g. in dated sediment cores), PBDE concentrations began to rise earlier than in those from high latitudes, in line with data for production and use. These trends have now slowed in many cases. Declines could be expected in Europe for many congeners following the cessation of manufacture and use of the penta-mix formulation in the EU, though these are not yet apparent in environmental samples. In Arctic biota, however, the rapidly rising concentrations seen currently in Canada could be expected to continue for some time, reflecting continued production and use of the penta-mix formulation in North America (>95% of the world total) and the impact of long-range atmospheric transport.     

湖北省关键生态系统服务供需状况的时空变化研究

生态系统服务是改善自然生态和维持土地可持续利用的关键。该文基于生态系统服务的供需视角,从时空两个维度量化了城市化过程中生态系统服务的赤字和盈余,据此提出土地优化利用建议。以湖北省为例,选取水源涵养、PM10去除、固碳和休闲娱乐4种生态系统服务,评估了2010~2015年湖北省生态系统服务供需的盈缺情况及演变过程,并测算其平衡阈值。结果表明：（1）除了水源涵养服务供给充足外,PM10去除、固碳和休闲娱乐服务均处于赤字状态;（2）水源涵养服务的供需趋向平衡,而PM10去除、固碳和休闲娱乐服务的供需差异逐步扩大;（3）各类生态系统服务的供需空间异质性较大;（4）生态系统服务供需达到平衡所要求的绿地比阈值普遍上升,建设用地比阈值普遍下降。上述研究对生态系统服务供需的直观量化,为优化土地管理提供了科学依据;建议湖北省应重点关注城市化过程中PM10去除和碳排放控制的问题,适度增加城市绿地,合理控制建设用地扩张。     

Social preferences towards ecosystem services provided by cloud forests in the neotropics: implications for conservation strategies

Despite the importance of neotropical cloud forests as providers of ecosystem services to society, they are one of the most threatened ecosystems in the world. We analysed the importance of three cloud forest reserves in central Colombia as providers of ecosystem services, as well as the social support to conservation actions in these ecosystems through willingness to pay (WTP) and willingness to give up time (WTT) estimates. Our results highlight the high commitment of all users of the cloud forest areas towards the conservation of the ecosystem services provided by these strategic ecosystems. We found that the most important perceived ecosystem services were water supply and habitat maintenance for species. Our findings also suggest that the respondents’ ecological knowledge (measured as the awareness of the ecosystem services supplied by cloud forests) was an important factor in determining both WTP and WTT for conserving cloud forests. Moreover, our results indicate that WTT should be a viable technique to explore individual preferences of different stakeholders towards conservation activities in cloud forests. Based on our results, we propose a conservation strategy of cloud forests that considers different users’ socio-economic and environmental characteristics, in which both experimental and experiential knowledge should be incorporated in order to promote collective action.     

长三角快速城市化地区土地利用变化对生态系统服务价值的影响——以嘉兴市为例

基于浙江省嘉兴市1979~2012年的土地利用数据,评估了各种土地利用类型的生态系统服务价值,分析了30多年来嘉兴市土地生态系统服务价值的动态变化及其对土地利用变化和景观格局变化的响应。结果表明:(1)1979~2012年,嘉兴市建设用地面积变化最大,增加了136.6%,相应的耕地面积减少了15.5%。(2)1979~2012年,嘉兴市景观破碎度指数从0.6531上升到0.8762,随着城市化进程的加剧,耕地景观破碎度指数不断增加、聚集度指数减小。(3)1979~2012年,嘉兴市的总生态系统服务价值减少了14.7%,2000~2012年嘉兴市总的生态系统服务价值减少尤为显著,生态系统各单项服务价值整体也呈现下降趋势,耕地为嘉兴市提供的生态系统服务占嘉兴市总生态系统服务的70%以上。(4)运用相关分析方法对嘉兴市土地利用类型和景观格局对土地生态系统服务价值的影响分析表明,耕地和水域与生态服务价值呈正相关,而建设用地和未利用地与生态服务价值呈负相关;景观多样性指数(SHDI)和耕地破碎度指数与生态系统服务总价值呈显著负相关关系。     

2008~2016年鄱阳湖生态经济区生态系统服务价值的时空变化研究

鄱阳湖生态经济区是中国重要生态功能区和世界自然基金会划定的全球重要生态区,2009年开始建设,目前已完成首要阶段的建设工作。基于土地覆被遥感解译数据,利用生态价值评估模型及GIS空间统计方法,分析鄱阳湖生态经济区2008~2016年间生态系统服务价值时空格局及动态演化。结果表明,鄱阳湖生态经济区土地利用/覆被方式以耕地、林地和草地为主,8年间区内草地和建筑用地面积明显增加,水域面积减少加剧,生态系统服务价值总体呈减少趋势,其中减少最明显的是林地和水域系统价值。水源涵养和土壤保持是鄱阳湖生态经济区最主要的生态系统服务功能,两者合计占比38%以上,但食物生产、水源涵养与废物处理的各单项生态服务价值下降比例较多。生态系统服务价值年均减少率超过20%的区域主要在城市地区,从空间分布来看,南部区域生态服务价值增长具有优势,尤其在2012~2016年间总的优势更为明显。     

Stakeholder perceptions of grassland ecosystem services in relation to knowledge on soil fertility and biodiversity

The concept of ecosystem services is increasingly being used by scientists and policy makers. However, most studies in this area have focussed on factors that regulate ecosystem functions (i.e. the potential to deliver ecosystem services) or the supply of ecosystem services. In contrast, demand for ecosystem services (i.e. the needs of beneficiaries) or understanding of the concept and the relative ranking of different ecosystem services by beneficiaries has received limited attention. The aim of this study was to identify in three European mountain regions the ecosystem services of grassland that different stakeholders identify (which ecosystem services for whom), the relative rankings of these ecosystem services, and how stakeholders perceive the provision of these ecosystem services to be related to agricultural activities. We found differences: (1) between farmers?? perceptions of ecosystem services across regions and (2) within regions, between knowledge of ecosystem services gained by regional experts through education and farmers?? local field-based knowledge. Nevertheless, we identified a common set of ecosystem services that were considered important by stakeholders across the three regions, including soil stability, water quantity and quality, forage quality, conservation of botanical diversity, aesthetics and recreation (for regional experts), and forage quantity and aesthetic (for local farmers). We observed two contrasting stakeholder representations of the effects of agricultural management on ecosystem services delivery, one negative and the other positive (considering low to medium management intensity). These representations were determined by stakeholders?? perceptions of the relationships between soil fertility and biodiversity. Overall, differences in perceptions highlighted in this study show that practitioners, policy makers and researchers should be more explicit in their uses of the ecosystem services concept in order to be correctly understood and to foster improved communication among stakeholders.     

基于海洋生态产品的海岛旅游绿色发展经济激励额度评估

海洋生态系统为人类提供了环境友好型海产品、可持续海洋原材料、可持续基因资源、生态旅游产品、海景观房地产等海洋生态标签生态产品和减缓温室效应产品、净化环境要素产品、灾害控制产品等海洋关键环境要素生态产品。本文以海洋生态产品理论为基础,将海岛旅游绿色发展含义界定为旅游目的地环境友好型海产品的生产与消费,旅游目的地海洋生态系统与森林生态系统持续稳定地提供核心生态系统服务和旅游业低碳排放;并运用海洋渔业生态标签制度(MFELS)、生态系统服务付费(PES)和市场替换法(MRM),以山东省长岛县为案例地,以问卷调查和访谈调查获取的数据为基础,对海岛旅游绿色发展经济激励额度进行了评估。结果表明:(1)运用MFELS可获得0.207 0×10~8元/a的经济激励资金,其中山东省短途客源地游客、京津冀晋豫中途客源地游客和其他省市区长途客源地游客平均每人次分别承担13.26元、17.57元和17.56元;(2)运用PES可获得0.673 6×10~8元/a的经济激励资金,其中短途游客、中途游客和长途游客平均每人次分别承担43.44元、57.89元和54.42元;(3)运用MRM可获得0.154 1×10~8元/a的经济激励资金,其中各类游客平均每人次分别承担0.00元、14.59元和34.58元;(4)运用MFELS、PES和MRM可获得1.034 7×10~8元/a的经济激励资金,其中各类游客平均每人次分别承担56.70元、90.05元和106.56元。研究建议:各客源地游客承担海岛旅游绿色发展经济激励资金应考虑区域的差异性特征。     

Bis(4-chlorophenyl) sulfone (BCPS) in Swedish marine and fresh water wildlife-a screening study

Bis(4-chlorophenyl) sulfone (BCPS) is a high production volume chemical (HPVC) applied in thermostable polymers. BCPS has been detected as an environmental contaminant both in Europe and in North America but it is still not a commonly studied pollutant. In this study, three Baltic Sea fish species; herring (Clupea harengus), salmon (Salmo salar) and perch (Perca fluviatilis) from the Swedish coast, and one inland fish species, arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus), were analysed to screen for the occurrence and distribution of BCPS. Salmon and arctic char, were sampled in the early 1970s as well as the late 1990s. Fish eating grey seal (Halichoerus gryphus) and guillemot (Uria aalge) from the Baltic Sea were included to screen for whether BCPS biomagnify or not. The representativeness of the analysed samples for studying bioaccumulation of environmental pollutants was compared through analysis of two well known persistent and bioaccumulating compounds, 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB-153), and 4,4'-DDE. Pooled muscle and blubber samples based on 4-10 individuals were used for analysis, as well as individual samples of grey seal blubber. 2,4,4'-Trichlorodiphenyl sulfone, was synthesised and applied as an internal standard. BCPS was detected in all marine samples but in only one of the fresh water fish samples. The highest BCPS concentrations detected, 1600 and 1900 ng/g lipid weighet (l.w.), were found in muscle from Baltic guillemot. The results indicate that BCPS is bioaccumulated in both grey seal and guillemot, and that the guillemot has higher concentrations of BCPS than the grey seal (50-500 ng/g l.w.). The concentrations found in different species of fish from the Baltic Sea ranged between 15-37 ng/g l.w. and lower concentrations were found in freshwater species (n.d.-1.8 ng/g l.w.). The present study shows that BCPS is found in all investigated species of wildlife but, in most species, still at low concentrations. However, the guillemot has levels in the low ppm range indicating a considerable biomagnification of BCPS in this species.     

The net ecosystem carbon exchange of human-modified environments in the Australian Capital Region

As part of a larger study to quantify and map ecosystem services in southeast Australia, we estimated carbon stored in biomass and soils and the net ecosystem carbon exchange between the land surface and the atmosphere in the Australian Capital Region (ACR). Our aim was to understand and quantify how different human-modified landscapes provide an essential ecosystem service: the exchange and storage of carbon in the landscape. Using a remote sensing based modelling methodology, we obtained values of Net Primary Productivity (NPP), total carbon in soil and biomass and carbon turnover from meteorological and terrain inputs and vegetation attributes. We obtained a set of maps of NPP, total carbon (C) storage and C-turnover for the ACR. We superimposed a land use/cover map to assign the uptake, storage and release of carbon to different land use/cover types. Our results support the hypothesis that human-intensive land uses significantly affect the ability of terrestrial ecosystems to provide an important ecosystem service in the form of carbon storage.     

Heavy metals in four fish species from the French coast of the Eastern English Channel and Southern Bight of the North Sea

Shallow coastal waters act as nurseries for various fish species and have been recognized as essential fish habitat. We studied heavy metal concentrations in four fish species (plaice, dab, flounder and cod) as an indicator of large-scale habitat quality. The study took place along the French coasts between the Eastern English Channel and the Southern Bight of the North Sea. All species show different concentrations of measured metals (e.g., Cd, Cu, Mn and Pb) in liver but not in muscle. The highest concentrations are found for the flounder and the lowest for cod which is consistent with their habitat and diet. Although our results do not highlight levels of appreciable pollution within the study area, inter-site differences are mainly observed in the muscle tissues and are generally in agreement with the known environmental data (e.g., anthropogenic pressure). However, in the Bay of Seine, one of the most contaminated estuaries in Europe, metal concentrations are in the same range or even lower than those found in fish collected from areas distant from any anthropogenic pressures. At one site, the comparisons of the Cd, Cu and Pb concentrations between healthy and diseased dabs have been carried out on the muscle and liver tissues. The results of this preliminary study show a relationship between metal concentrations and the pathological status of the fish. The use of fish health as indicator of habitat quality is discussed.     

Requirements for adaptive governance of groundwater ecosystem services: insights from Sandveld (South Africa), Upper Guadiana (Spain) and Spree (Germany)

The over-abstraction of aquifers and the modification of landscape–water systems often result in the degradation of groundwater resources and the loss of related ecosystem services. Many of these problems are associated with failure of governance and management regimes. Thus, groundwater resources require innovative approaches that deal with system complexity moving governments toward adaptive and integrated management. Vertical (hierarchical) and horizontal (cross-sectoral) integration structures are crucial characteristics of adaptive governance and support sustainable management of groundwater ecosystem services. The research objective of this article is to investigate linkages between these integration structures, the governance regime and the state of groundwater ecosystem services across three case studies: Sandveld (South Africa), Upper Guadiana (Spain) and Spree (Germany). First, we developed a set of criteria indicating vertical and horizontal integration and then applied a conceptual and analytical approach, the Management and Transition Framework, specifically developed to support a systematic and consistent investigation of policy and management processes. Results indicate that higher degrees of integration during management activities do not identify a direct improvement of groundwater ecosystem services. But evidence highlights that integration (1) opens up the political arena for environmental perspectives, (2) increases the quality of groundwater and conservation plans, (3) accelerates the implementation of policies, (4) mitigates conflicts between different groundwater users and (5) increases the awareness of different ecosystem services. Finally, we conclude that compared with other natural resources, groundwater management still lacks participation, multi-level interactions and sectoral integration, especially at higher levels of management.     

战略环境影响评价中生物多样性影响评价特点

随着战略环境影响评价（Strategic Environmental Assessment，简称SEA）的发展，SEA被越来越广泛地用于生物多样性影响评价。由于受人类对生物多样性的研究和认识水平的限制，目前在国内外还没有成熟的方法用于生物多样性的影响评价，以致于生物多样性的影响评价内容不够具体和全面。从生物多样性的景观、生态系统、物种和基因4个层次分析了生物多样性影响评价在SEA中应用的限制因素。在此基础上，提出景观层次影响评价可以通过寻求易于测度的关键景观要素进行评价，宏观把握景观变化给生物多样性带来的影响趋势；生态系统层次影响评价应充分考虑各种替代方案的比较，避免敏感目标的生物多样性重大损失；物种层次的影响评价选择重要的目标物种作为主要评价依据；受研究水平限制，基因层次的影响评价还不具有普遍意义。     

Irrigation canals as tools for climate change adaptation and fish biodiversity management in Southern France

This paper is based on the interdisciplinary research conducted in the south of France that analyses the different economic, social and environmental roles played by agricultural irrigation canals. We argue that beyond their productive role, which is to supply farmers with water, they fulfil other environmental services and play an important role in the context of future climate change to face challenges of adaptation. We point up several ecosystem services provided by such canals, e.g. replenishing the groundwater table, the development of riparian vegetation and wet areas in the Mediterranean zone, tools for regulating flooding and drought, the bases for new cultural approaches to nature. Moreover, they play an important role in the maintenance of an ichthyological biodiversity that is indispensable for the persistence of natural ecosystem. Functioning as an ecological corridor, they display interesting capacities as refuges for certain fish species under stress. Indeed, they can potentially connect upstream and downstream zones over a continuum of more than 300 km and thus covering very contrasted climatic zones (alpine versus Mediterranean). For now, most of these services remain largely unknown and underestimated. However, they serve as assets for territorial development since they combine economic, ecological and social factors whose remodelling is becoming increasingly necessary in the face of climate change.     

退田还湖后替代生计的经济评估研究——以洞庭湖西畔山洲垸为例

分析了“湿地保护项目是如何改善民众生计的”这一问题。采用2000～2005年1 474个农户调查问卷作为基本数据,其中964个农户位于洞庭湖西畔山洲垸。得出6个结论：①WWF在西畔山洲垸的替代生计示范项目增加了农户的收入和福利,降低了脆弱性,增强可持续利用的自然资源基础;②妇女、老人以及低收入群体从项目中获益;③参加项目的农户比未参加项目的农户拥有更多的收入和财产;④与2000年项目开始时相比,生计水平有了持续的改善;⑤生计改善的原因是当地社区的积极参与、国家政策机遇、伙伴关系的建立、社区基层组织建设以及适应性管理方法的应用;⑥鱼类和水鸟等返回已恢复的湿地。表明该示范项目达到了自然保护目标。