Institutions,policies and soil degradation: theoretical examinations and case studies in Southeast China

Abstract

Southeast China is one of the severe soil degradation areas in China. This paper theoretically examines the impact of some important institutional arrangements and policies, like land management pattern, the rural off-farm employment, land property change and changes in prices of agricultural products, on soil degradation in this area. It further conducts some case studies to confirm the potential relationship between the institutions & policies and soil degradation, applying the surveyed and the second hand data. The paper at last makes some conclusions and proposes some suggestions on how to promote soil conservation by improving the ways of policy decision-making and the effects of policies on land use.     

Land Degradation Evaluation in North Hebei Province Based on Remote Sensing and GIS

Land degradation is one of the serious environmental problems that can lead to poverty, and is especially prominent in eco-fragile areas in developing countries and increases the risk of environmental safety. North Hebei Province belongs to an ecologically fragile region in North China, which has great impact on the eco-safety of Beijing and Tianjin. Using Landsat TM data and GIS, this paper evaluates land degradation in North Hebei province of China from the the 1960＇s to 1987 and 2000. Land use/cover change pattern from 1987 to 2000, its regional difference and forest change characteristics will also be analyzed; soil erosion intensity and arable land suitability were also evaluated. Results revealed that land use/cover pattern in this study area did not change greatly from 1987 to 2000. The structure and function of regional land ecosystem was at a level of local improvement and integral deterioration. Land above medium soil erosion intensity reached 21 percent, which was also the area with a serious soil erosion and land degradation problem. Soil erosion and land degradation intensity of grassland was the biggest. For the present arable land, the proportion of high suitability was 13 percent.     

Land Degradation Evaluation in North Hebei Province Based on Remote Sensing and GIS

Abstract

Land degradation is one of the serious environmental problems that can lead to poverty, and is especially prominent in eco-fragile areas in developing countries and increases the risk of environmental safety. North Hebei Province belongs to an ecologically fragile region in North China, which has great impact on the eco-safety of Beijing and Tianjin. Using Landsat TM data and GIS, this paper evaluates land degradation in North Hebei province of China from the the 1960's to 1987 and 2000. Land use/cover change pattern from 1987 to 2000, its regional difference and forest change characteristics will also be analyzed; soil erosion intensity and arable land suitability were also evaluated. Results revealed that land use/cover pattern in this study area did not change greatly from 1987 to 2000. The structure and function of regional land ecosystem was at a level of local improvement and integral deterioration. Land above medium soil erosion intensity reached 21 percent, which was also the area with a serious soil erosion and land degradation problem. Soil erosion and land degradation intensity of grassland was the biggest. For the present arable land, the proportion of high suitability was 13 percent.     

Impacts of soil and water pollution on food safety and health risks in China

Environmental pollution and food safety are two of the most important issues of our time. Soil and water pollution, in particular, have historically impacted on food safety which represents an important threat to human health. Nowhere has that situation been more complex and challenging than in China, where a combination of pollution and an increasing food safety risk have affected a large part of the population. Water scarcity, pesticide over-application, and chemical pollutants are considered to be the most important factors impacting on food safety in China. Inadequate quantity and quality of surface water resources in China have led to the long-term use of waste-water irrigation to fulfill the water requirements for agricultural production. In some regions this has caused serious agricultural land and food pollution, especially for heavy metals. It is important, therefore, that issues threatening food safety such as combined pesticide residues and heavy metal pollution are addressed to reduce risks to human health. The increasing negative effects on food safety from water and soil pollution have put more people at risk of carcinogenic diseases, potentially contributing to ‘cancer villages’ which appear to correlate strongly with the main food producing areas. Currently in China, food safety policies are not integrated with soil and water pollution management policies. Here, a comprehensive map of both soil and water pollution threats to food safety in China is presented and integrated policies addressing soil and water pollution for achieving food safety are suggested to provide a holistic approach.     

An integrative approach to modeling land-use changes: multiple facets of agriculture in the Upper Yangtze basin

Land change science has emerged as a fundamental component of global environmental change and sustainability research. Still, much remains to be learned before scientists can fully assess future roles of land-use/cover changes (LUCC) in the functioning of the Earth system and identifying conditions for sustainable land use. The objective of this paper is to gain a better understanding of the complex interactions of human and natural drivers underlying LUCC. We do so by developing and estimating a novel structural model of land use and using spatially explicit longitudinal observations from the Upper Yangtze basin of China. Our analysis focuses on the multiple dimensions of agriculture—not only cropland use itself, but also grain production, soil erosion, and related technical change—and our data cover 31 counties over four time periods from 1975 to 2000. Our results show that technical change plays an important role in supplying food on a limited cropland; limiting cropland expansion in turn reduces soil erosion, which then benefits grain production in the longer term. It is also found that policies and institutions have significant impacts on land use and the status of soil erosion. Together, these results carry some great implications to sustainable land use and ecosystem management.     

转型期中国耕地非农化与土地退化的实证分析

改革开放以来．伴随着国民经济的快速发展．中国的耕地非农化速度也在不断加快。并由此产生了大量的社会和环境问题。本文从人类土地利用行为变化的角度提出了分析耕地非农化对土地退化影响的基本思路：然后基于这一思路．并结合对全国层面统计数据的计量分析．深入探讨了转型期中国的耕地非农化对土地退化的影响：研究表明由耕地非农化所引致的耕地开垦、耕地集约利用以及非农建设用地扩张等人们土地利用行为的变化会最终引起土地资源的退化：包括水土流失和土地沙化的加剧、土壤质量的退化以及土地污染的加剧等。     

日本国土开发利用及对我国的启示

日本在战后经历了经济高速增长，工业化和城市化快速推进的发展历程，其间土地利用在结构、规模、价格、集约利用等方面发生了巨大变动。本文全面分析了二战之后，日本在经济高速增长、产业结构巨大变动、城市化迅速推进的发展过程中．农业用地、工业用地和城市用地在结构、规模、价格、集约利用程度等方面的特征；日本政府针对经济发展和土地利用的变动和影响。制订的一系列规划调整措施和政策法规体系。通过以上分析，探讨日本在有限的土地资源条件下实现经济高速增长的原因、途径和措施，以及对我国的启示。     

Linking perceived land and water resources degradation,scarcity and livelihood conflicts in southwestern Tanzania: implications for sustainable rural livelihood

In Africa, the land and water resources quality are key factors for sustainable development. The degradation of the quality of these resources leads to scarcities and conflicts, which together threaten the sustainability of rural livelihoods. This work investigated and analysed the livelihoods conflicts over the land and water resources and their scarcities, policies that contributed to the land and water scarcities and the livelihood conflicts and linkage of the conflicts to the resources scarcities and degradation. Implications of degradation of the resources, development policies and livelihoods conflicts on sustainable development are discussed. Literature study, visits and discussions, participatory assessments, observations and questionnaire survey were used tools to collect data. Interviews of the 266 households revealed that, those experiencing the land and water scarcities and conflicts over these resources are significantly (p < 0.001) higher than those not experiencing the scarcities and conflicts. Crop-livestock competition, over the land and water resources causes prominent conflicts. A significant, (p < 0.05) associations of livelihoods conflicts to water shortage and period of water shortage for crop and livestock production were found. Improved accessibility to soil and water management technologies, wildlife–livestock co-existence, recognition of needs and land rights for pastoralists are recommended to minimize scarcities and herders versus farmers’ conflicts.     

亚热带喀斯特石漠化土地退化特征研究

喀斯特石漠化退化土地是目前西部地区经济发展、生态恢复与重建工作最为严重的问题之一。喀斯特石漠化是一种严重的土地退化,石漠化土地退化过程中存在社会经济反馈、动力反馈和生物原反馈等多层次反馈结构。由于喀斯特生态系统的独特性和脆弱性,喀斯特石漠化土地具有不同于其它生态脆弱区土地退化的特征,因而将其归纳为土地退化恢复过程的基岩差异性、退化恢复过程与土地利用方式的相关性、退化土地成因的地域差异性、石漠化土地的空间异质性与尺度相关性、恢复过程的土壤—地形决定性、土壤资源的不可再生性,石漠化土地退化的本质是喀斯特生态系统服务功能的下降和丧失,是一种功能性荒漠化。对石漠化土地的特征进行全面深入的探讨,有助于石漠化土地分类治理和生态恢复重建。     

Soil Fertility Quality and Agricultural Sustainable Development in the Black Soil Region of Northeast China

The black soil in northeast China is considered one of the most fertile soils in China. Consequently, the black soil region has become one of the most important regions for cereal grain production in China. Agriculture has developed rapidly since the early part of the nineteenth century. To date, approximately 70 percent of total land in the area is cultivated. Even though the agricultural production in this region is increasing continuously, some soil fertility quality problems have become serious. This is hampering agricultural development and sustainability in the region. A brief history of population growth and agricultural development in the region is presented. Major soil quality problems, particularly soil degradation and soil erosion, are analyzed. Based on studies, suggestions for improving soil quality and for promoting sustainable agricultural development in the region are presented. These suggestions include improving agricultural landscape patterns, developing conservation cultivation, promoting combinations of crop production with combinations of forestry and animal husbandry, and implementing integrated management for soil and water conservation.     

当前农户耕地保护积极性的现状分析与思考

切实保护耕地是我国土地管理的基本国策，农户作为耕地的直接使用者。在耕地保护中扮演着重要的角色，如何充分调动农户的耕地保护性。提高农户的耕地保护主动性和责任心，对我国耕地保护效果至关重要。本文利用江西省16个县（区、市）952户农户的实证调查数据。从对国家耕地政策认识、耕地征用意愿、耕地保护责任认识、耕地质量保护投入等方面剖析了当前农户的耕地保护积极性现状。并进而提出调动农户耕地保护积极性的对策建议。     

Deforestation in the drylands of Africa: Quantitative modelling approach

This paper has developed a two-sector model of forestry that gives some insights into the interactions of poverty, land tenure insecurity, economic growth, trade and deforestation in the context of the drylands of Africa. Externally, the model results show that the world demand for non-timber forestry products can lead to a win-win situation whereby both trade and environmental sustainability can be promoted. Monopolistic measures to control the supply of these products, for short-term price gains, are harmful economically and environmentally. By contrast, productivity-raising measures have a favourable impact on both the economy and the environment. Internally, the model results show that the growth of the rest of the economy has driven the economic growth of the forestry sector, but at the same time, its environmental degradation. Poverty and land tenure insecurity also contribute to this degradation. Fortunately, policies promoting basic needs satisfaction and property rights security are shown to be effective in mitigating environmental degradation in the forestry sector. The paper results contribute towards a more sustainable exploitation of forestry.     

生态约束下的湖滨土地利用研究——以四川省仁寿县黑龙滩镇为例

生态文明体制改革下围绕土地“三位一体”管理理念,强化土地利用生态管理是当今我国土地资源管理的综合思路,研究湖滨生态敏感区土地利用具有重要的生态价值和现实意义。以四川省仁寿县黑龙滩镇为实证研究区,通过构建数理量化模型和经济计量模型分析了2005~2015年间研究区湖滨土地利用状况,并差别化探讨了湖滨土地利用优化模式,提出了相关政策建议。研究表明:(1)黑龙滩镇湖滨土地利用多样化系数和均衡度在时序上变幅较小,在空间上低于全县平均水平,但总体上处于均衡状态。(2)黑龙滩镇湖滨土地利用生态安全总体为波动上升趋势,以2012年为拐点,安全状态由较安全向安全阶段转变,总体呈较安全状态。(3)黑龙滩镇湖滨土地利用生态安全主要受种植结构优化合理度、人口密度、地均牲畜量、水环境污染负荷、水土流失占比、单位耕地农药负荷的影响,其中人口密度与预期方向相反,种植结构优化合理度具有显著的正效应,其余的综合净效应为负。(4)针对黑龙滩镇湖滨土地利用变化状况以及生态安全保护需求与区域发展趋势,差别化地提出退耕还湖与持续利用生态模式、复合农业与生态种植发展模式、休闲农业与教育体验发展模式三类湖滨土地利用模式。综上提出了加强湖滨水土资源保护、优化湖滨农业结构布局和规范湖滨管理的政策建议。     

Rainfall trends,land use change and adaptation in the Chaco salteño region of Argentina

Regional change under agricultural expansion in the Chaco of Argentina is determined by interactions of rainfall change, infrastructure development, socio-economic actions and values, and the social perceptions of change. Our study focused on adaptation in the socio-environmental system which is the key to understanding opportunities, uncertainties and risk in the context of historical change. Change in land use from extensive grazing through mixed farming and on to industrial-scale soybean production was made possible by a trend of increasing rainfall that reduced the risk of crop failure from drought since the 1970s. Rainfall change coincided with a period in which the Chaco forest was suffering extensive degradation from long-term extractive use. The degradation aided agricultural expansion since the degraded state of the ecosystem justified public policies of deforestation. In parallel to these resource-based processes, public policy changed in the late 70s and 80s toward favoring privatization of state land and exclusion of small producers. This permitted the land concentration needed for industrial-scale production. Technological innovation in both water and land resource management reinforced the process of concentration because small producers rarely have the financial or educational capital to develop or implement emerging technologies. One of the results of the intensification and expansion of agriculture is that soil surface sealing, waterlogging and flood risk are now effective at a landscape scale. To address these risks, private enterprise and government efforts must now come together toward innovative policies in integrated landscape management.     

关于中国西南石漠化的若干问题

石漠化是西南岩溶山地脆弱生态系统发生的土地退化。根据已有的经验和研究成果,深入探讨了中国西南岩溶山地喀斯特石漠化的科学内涵、成因、发展过程、评价指标及防治机理等。土壤和植被是岩溶环境中最为敏感的自然环境要素,可能是石漠化过程的主要自然成因,而以土地利用为表现形式的强烈人类活动为驱动力;石漠化的发生发展过程即人为过程→生物学过程→加速的地学过程。石漠与石漠化,二者属于完全不同的范畴,不同空间尺度的石漠化评价应有不同的评价指标、标准和石漠化生态基准的多样性,以便为石漠化的演化研究及生态重建起一定的参考作用。鉴于石漠化现象在我国现实中存在的客观性、在理论概念上的模糊性及在生态治理中的急迫性,有必要加强石漠化在不同时空尺度下的驱动机制研究,特别是人类驱动力的研究,加强原生岩溶生态系统和受损岩溶生态系统运行规律的研究。     

Deforestation in the drylands of Africa: Quantitative modelling approach

This paper has developed a two-sector model of forestry that gives some insights into the interactions of poverty, land tenure insecurity, economic growth, trade and deforestation in the context of the drylands of Africa. Externally, the model results show that the world demand for non-timber forestry products can lead to a win-win situation whereby both trade and environmental sustainability can be promoted. Monopolistic measures to control the supply of these products, for short-term price gains, are harmful economically and environmentally. By contrast, productivity-raising measures have a favourable impact on both the economy and the environment. Internally, the model results show that the growth of the rest of the economy has driven the economic growth of the forestry sector, but at the same time, its environmental degradation. Poverty and land tenure insecurity also contribute to this degradation. Fortunately, policies promoting basic needs satisfaction and property rights security are shown to be effective in mitigating environmental degradation in the forestry sector. The paper results contribute towards a more sustainable exploitation of forestry.Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

土壤与全球环境变化

本文着重论述了“土壤变化”与“全球气候变化”之间的相互作用。土壤圈通过其内部一系列的理化、生化变化及土地利用变化等,产生CO_2、CH_4、N_2O等“温室效应”气体特别是CH_4和N_2O向大气的排放,对“全球气候变化”产生重要的影响,而全球气候变暖又会引起土壤沙漠化、酸化、盐渍化等退化过程的进一步加剧,严重改变人类生存的环境。加强科学宣传,提高全球民众环境意识,加强科学研究与监测,提出相应措施,是适应或改变上述全球变化的重要战略对策。     

长三角地区植被退化的空间格局及影响因素分析

植被退化是陆地生态系统功能下降的重要表征。利用2000~2010年SPOT-VEGETATION NDVI遥感数据、土地利用数据,采用趋势分析、叠加分析和格网计算方法,对长三角植被退化的空间格局及其影响因素进行分析。结果表明:10a间长三角地区最大化NDVI均值空间分布南北高、中间低,区域14%的植被覆盖面积显著退化。植被退化呈现一定的空间分异,而人类活动是导致植被退化的主要原因。在长江以南、太湖的北部与东部,环杭州湾地区及南京、南通和台州等城市快速无序的城镇化,造成了建设用地面积增加和耕地的破碎化,使植被退化区域集中连片分布。经济利益驱动农民将水田转化为向水产养殖,引起植被退化。部分区域植被面积未减少而呈退化态势的原因有待研究。     

A review of regulatory decisions for environmental protection: part II - the case-study of contaminated land management in Portugal

This paper provides a case-study analysis of the challenges in the implementation of national soil policies, which was developed by the authors in Part I of the review of regulatory decisions for environmental protection [Rodrigues SM, Pereira ME, Ferreira da Silva E, Hursthouse A, Duarte AC. A review of regulatory decisions for environmental management: Part I-challenges in the implementation of national soil policies. Environ Int 2009. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2008.08.007]. The Portuguese case was selected as a case-study since specific regulatory decisions for contaminated land management are still in the early stages of development. Given the gap between the situation at the EU level and the state of Portuguese soil policy development, it is of merit to consider national contaminated land policy regimes already in place within the EU and to see if these provide a suitable basis to define the main challenges and research needs for the implementation of a Portuguese contaminated land management strategy. A framework combining the D-P-S-I-R (drivers-pressures-sources-impacts-responses) structure of policy evaluation with the Source-Pathway-Receptor approach to health risk assessment is proposed to derive an effective regulatory framework for managing contaminated land in Portugal, using available information and only to develop new data and research where knowledge gaps exist. Funding site clean-up and assigning liability were identified as relevant factors currently hampering site remediation. Most relevant research needs for the development of contaminated land management practices in Portugal are those associated to the definition of a risk assessment framework and setting guidelines for the evaluation of risks posed to both humans and ecosystems. Other relevant and innovative features are the integration of soil function analysis into site investigations and the definition of a framework that combines risk assessment with soil function analysis. The analysis of the Portuguese case also provides insight into the discussions needed for the effective development of regulatory decisions for contaminated land management in countries with no history of implementing specific soil policies.     

Population dynamics,rural livelihoods and environmental degradation: some experiences from Tanzania

Population growth and environmental degradation are closely linked. Increasing population has in many rural areas of Tanzania contributed to changes in land use/cover patterns, land fragmentation and livelihood insecurity. Increasing demand for food, energy and other environmental services has contributed to expansion of agriculture, including marginal areas, and deforestation often leading to environmental degradation. Increased reliance on natural resources for rural livelihoods, subsistence nature of the agricultural sector and limited economic opportunities in rural areas are among the factors leading to rural–rural and rural–urban migrations searching for better livelihood opportunities. The high urban demand for food and biomass energy from rural areas has also contributed to rural deforestation and overall environmental degradation. This paper addresses the linkages between population and environmental degradation in Tanzania. It argues that effective implementation of development and resources management policies can lead to environmental sustainability even with growing populations. It provides evidence from successful land management interventions such as HADO, HASHI and SECAP, which support the argument that with effective implementation of resource management initiatives even larger populations can be supported by the available resources. Such successful interventions ought to be emulated elsewhere with similar environmental problems.