Conserving Mangrove Ecosystems in the Philippines: Transcending Disciplinary and Institutional Borders

Humans are rapidly depleting critical ecosystems and the life support functions they provide, increasing the urgency of developing effective conservation tools. Using a case study of the conversion of mangrove ecosystems to shrimp aquaculture, this article describes an effort to develop a transdisciplinary, transinstitutional approach to conservation that simultaneously trains future generations of environmental problem solvers. We worked in close collaboration with academics, non-government organizations, local government and local communities to organize a workshop in Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Philippines. The primary objectives of the workshop were to: (1) train participants in the basic principles of ecological economics and its goals of sustainable scale, just distribution and efficient allocation; (2) learn from local community stakeholders and participating scientists about the problems surrounding conversion of mangrove ecosystems to shrimp aquaculture; (3) draw on the skills and knowledge of all participants to develop potential solutions to the problem; and (4) communicate results to those with the power and authority to act on them. We found that the economic and ecological benefits of intact mangroves outweigh the returns to aquaculture. Perversely, however, private property rights to mangrove ecosystems favor inefficient, unjust and unsustainable allocation of the resource—a tragedy of the non-commons. We presented the workshop results to the press and local government, which shut down the aquaculture ponds to conserve the threatened ecosystem. Effective communication to appropriate audiences was essential for transforming research into action. Our approach is promising and can be readily applied to conservation research and advocacy projects worldwide, but should be improved through adaptive management—practitioners must continually build on those elements that work and discard or improve those that fail.     

秦皇岛市海港区土地生态环境保护和整治

当前土地生态环境安全是土地资源可持续利用的基础。近年,由于经济快速发展以及土地的不合理利用与高强度开发,秦皇岛市海港区局部出现了水土流失、土地质量退化、土地污染等土地生态环境问题,导致土地生态平衡的失调,甚至出现经济发展与土地生态环境破坏的恶性循环。通过分析海港区的土地利用现状、自然生态特征等,在充分认识土地生态环境现状及存在的问题的基础上,提出采取管护与保育并重,以生态经济和生态环境建设为重点等土地生态环境保护与整治措施。     

Uncertainty in exhaustible natural resource economics: The irreversible sunk costs of Hotelling

According to Pindyck (2007) there are three important aspects of uncertainly in environmental economics: (1) the benefits and costs of environmental policy tend to be highly non-linear, (2) environmental policy tends to involve important irreversibilities, where investment in pollution abatement can impose an irreversible, sunk cost on society, and where certain pollutants can stay in the environment forever and build up to cause even more future harm in which case investment in abatement can cause an irreversible, sunk benefit to society, and (3) environmental policy involves long time horizons and yet the discount rate society should use is uncertain for determining the net present value of costs and benefits of pollution abatement. These same uncertainties also affect non-renewable, exhaustible, natural resource economics and in particular the use of the Hotelling rule: (1) the costs, benefits and transversality conditions of using the Hotelling rule can be highly non-linear, (2) the Hotelling rule involves important sunk cost irreversibilities, which will be explained here, and (3) the Hotelling rule can involve long time horizons with uncertain discount rates. All three of these problem make it extremely difficult for a market to use in any way the Hotelling rule, yet by the sheer number of articles in non-renewable natural resource economics, one would believe that it is the basis of all resource markets. In this article, we concentrate on the sunk cost irreversibilities of using the Hotelling rule. The idea of the Hotelling rule is to optimally store a non-renewable resource, but the optimization is highly dependent on the actual reserves that are available to extract. However, reserves of underground exhaustible resources are often unobservable at the beginning stages of extraction which makes using the Hotelling Rule difficult.     

Sustainable community development and ecological economics: theoretical convergence and practical implications

This paper examines the relationships between community development, sustainable development and economics. In particular the convergence of thought in the realms of strong sustainability and ecological economics are shown to be consistent with the goals of sustainable community development (SCD). It is argued that in order to truly and effectively practice SCD, an economics of sustainability, best represented by ecological economics, should be incorporated into all facets of SCD work. It is suggested that the application of neoclassical or environmental economics is likely to limit the effectiveness of SCD work. Five practical implications of the necessary relationship between SCD and ecological economics are presented, suggesting that SCD practitioners must: (1) seek interdisciplinarity, (2) understand and endorse limits to growth, (3) adopt and endorse alternative measures of success, (4) seek the economic valuation of natural and social capital and (5) ensure the inclusion of equity in discussions of sustainability. Finally, a practical example of those implications is offered by way of a community economic workbook application.     

ADAPTING EXISTING MODELS TO EXAMINE EFFECTS OF AGRICULTURAL CONSERVATION PROGRAMS ON STREAM HABITAT QUALITY1

Annual expenditures by the federal government in the United States for agricultural conservation programs increased about 80 percent with passage of the 2002 Farm Bill. However, environmental benefits of these programs have not been quantified. A national project is under way to estimate the effect of conservation practices on environmental resources. The watershed models intended for use in that project are focused on water quantity and quality and have minimal habitat assessment capability. Major impairments to aquatic ecosystems in many watersheds consist of physical habitat degradation, not water quality, suggesting that current models for this national initiative do not address one of the most significant aspects of aquatic ecosystem degradation. Currently used models contain some components relevant to aquatic habitat, and this paper describes specific components that should be added to allow rudimentary stream habitat quality assessments. At least six types of variables could be examined for ecological impact: land use, streamflow, water temperature, streambed material type, large woody debris, and hydraulic conditions at base flow. All of these variables are influenced by the presence, location, and quality of buffers. Generation of stream corridor ecological or habitat quality indices might contribute to assessments of the success or failure of conservation programs. Additional research is needed to refine procedures for combining specific measures of stream habitat into ecologically meaningful indices.     

Economic sustainability and the preservation of environmental assets

The core requirement of sustainability is that current economic activities should not result in an excessive burden on future generations. This criterion is general enough to imply different decision rules for the preservation of environmental assets. Neoclassical economics does not have a sustainability criterion for environmental assets independent of the intertemporal efficiency criterion, which allocates environmental and man-made capital based on projected monetary benefits and costs. This criterion is examined in terms of the feasibility of valuing the benefits of environmental assets, the substitution possibilities between natural and man-made capital, and the ethical grounds for using efficiency as the sole determinant of the allocation of environmental assets. An alternative ecological sustainability criterion is the preservation of safe minimum levels of environmental assets in physical terms rather than the dollar value of a composite of natural and man-made capital. Safe minimum standards for environmental assets constrain the efficiency criterion in order to ensure the sustainability of economic systems. It is argued that the ecological approach to sustainability should limit the economic approach for decisions involving the allocation of environmental assets.     

Nature-based marine tourism in the Gulf of California and Baja California Peninsula: Economic benefits and key species

Ecotourism can incentivize social and environmental benefits through marine conservation, in parallel with efforts to better manage fisheries, coastal development, and other human pressures. In Mexico's Gulf of California and Baja California Peninsula (GCBP), marine ecosystems support tourism activities in many communities, but to date there have been no region-wide studies to estimate their benefits or identify key species. Based on data collected in this study, each year nature-based marine tourism in the GCBP results in 896,000 visits, US$518 million in expenditures and at least 3,575 direct jobs from formal operations. In interviews with operators, over 40 species groups were named as important; sea lions, whale sharks, whales, and marlin were the highest ranked, highlighting the importance of ecosystem-wide health for nature-based tourism sustainability. Local employment and the ability to make economic and conservation goals compatible were noted by operators as significant opportunities provided by nature-based marine tourism; challenges included pollution and declines in ecosystem health, a lack of infrastructure, poor resource management policies, and high operating costs. As nature-based marine tourism expands, a wider transition to true ecotourism, a focus on equitable benefits and collaboration between stakeholders and a cross-scale and ecosystem approach to management will be vital for achieving potential sustainable social, ecological and economic benefits.     

Seeing (and doing) conservation through cultural lenses

In this paper, we first discuss various vantage points gained through the authors’ experience of approaching conservation through a “cultural lens.” We then draw out more general concerns that many anthropologists hold with respect to conservation, summarizing and commenting on the work of the Conservation and Community Working Group within the Anthropology and Environment Section of the American Anthropological Association. Here we focus on both critiques and contributions the discipline of anthropology makes with regard to conservation, and show how anthropologists are moving beyond conservation critiques to engage actively with conservation practice and policy. We conclude with reflections on the possibilities for enhancing transdisciplinary dialogue and practice through reflexive questioning, the adoption of disciplinary humility, and the realization that “cross-border” collaboration among conservation scholars and practitioners can strengthen the political will necessary to stem the growing commoditization and ensuing degradation of the earth’s ecosystems.     

How does economic complexity influence environmental degradation? New insights from African countries

This paper seeks to investigate the effect of economic complexity on environmental degradation in 20 selected African countries over the period 1991–2014. The Feasible Generalized Least Square (FGLS), and Driscoll-Kraay estimators (DK) are used to capture the objectives of the study. The results suggest that economic complexity and economic growth enhance environmental degradation. Also, natural resources rents and globalization improve environmental quality. Furthermore, the findings reject the U-shaped relationship between economic complexity and environmental degradation. In addition, the Dumitrescu-Hurlin panel causality test shows a bidirectional causal relation between economic complexity and environmental degradation. Taking into account the ecological deficit or ecological reserve status of country, it is shown that while the natural resource rents reduce environmental degradation in ecological reserve countries, they increase environmental degradation in ecological deficit countries. The results are robust when an alternative measure of economic complexity is used. Based on these findings, the paper suggests that the governments of African countries should take into account economic complexity when designing their environmental protection policies.     

Review and challenges of policies of environmental protection and sustainable development in China

China is confronted with the dual task of developing its national economy and protecting its ecological environment. Since the 1980s, China's policies on environmental protection and sustainable development have experienced five changes: (1) progression from the adoption of environmental protection as a basic state policy to the adoption of sustainable development strategy; (2) changing focus from pollution control to ecological conservation equally; (3) shifting from end-of-pipe treatment to source control; (4) moving from point source treatment to regional environmental governance; and (5) a turn away from administrative management-based approaches and towards a legal means and economic instruments-based approach. Since 1992, China has set down sustainable development as a basic national strategy. However, environmental pollution and ecological degradation in China have continued to be serious problems and have inflicted great damage on the economy and quality of life. The beginning of the 21st century is a critical juncture for China's efforts towards sustaining rapid economic development, intensifying environmental protection efforts, and curbing ecological degradation. As the largest developing country, China's policies on environmental protection and sustainable development will be of primary importance not only for China, but also the world. Realizing a completely well-off society by the year 2020 is seen as a crucial task by the Chinese government and an important goal for China's economic development in the new century, however, attaining it would require a four-fold increase over China's year 2000 GDP. Therefore, speeding up economic development is a major mission during the next two decades and doing so will bring great challenges in controlling depletion of natural resources and environmental pollution. By taking a critical look at the development of Chinese environmental policy, we try to determine how best to coordinate the relationship between the environment and the economy in order to improve quality of life and the sustainability of China's resources and environment. Examples of important measures include: adjustment of economic structure, reform of energy policy, development of environmental industry, pollution prevention and ecological conservation, capacity building, and international cooperation and public participation.     

Urban and Ecological Planning in Chicago: Science,Policy and Dissent

Home to some of the tallest buildings in the world, the urban landscape of Chicago announces itself long before visitors can reach it. This first impression is presently being contradicted by the implementation of an 80 937 ha ecological restoration in the city's greater metropolitan area. Using these projects as a case-study, the objective of this analysis is to understand the integration of environmental conservation efforts into urban life, exploring the viability of a model for combining urban renewal and environmental restoration. Controversies surrounding the Cook County Forest Preserve project familiarize us with some of the difficulties encountered in the science, policy and politics of urban ecological restoration projects. Though the city's urban and environmental history provides clues to precedents and structural opportunities for restorationists, it has not eliminated the doubts of those favouring conservation. However, the case shows that, while controversy may be a burden, it need not end initiatives for urban and environmental planning. Moreover, these controversies can be opportunities for an institutional learning and policy adaption process.     

Emergy evaluation and economic analysis of three wetland fish farming systems in Nansi Lake area,China

Emergy and economic methods were used to evaluate and compare three fish production models, i.e., cage fish farming system, pond intensive fish rearing system and semi-natural extensive pond fish rearing system, in Nansi Lake area in China in the year 2007. The goal of this study was to understand the benefits and driving forces of selected fish production models from ecological and economic points of view. The study considered input structure, production efficiency, environmental impacts, economic viability and sustainability. Results show that the main difference among the three production systems was the emergy cost for fish feed associated with their feeding system, i.e., feeding on natural biomass such as plankton and grass or on commercial feedstock. As indicated by EYR, ELR and ESI, it can be clearly shown that the intensive production model with commercial feed is not a sustainable pattern. However, the point is that more environmentally sound patterns do not seem able to provide a competitive net profit in the short run. The intensive pond fish farming system had a net profit of 2.57E+03 $/ha, much higher than 1.27E+03 $/ha for cage fish farming system and slightly higher than 2.37E+03 $/ha for semi-natural fish farming system. With regard to the drivers of local farmer’s decisions, the accessibility of land for the required use and investment ability determine the farmer’s choice of the production model and the scale of operation, while other factors seem to have little effect. Theoretically, the development of environmentally sustainable production patterns, namely water and land conservation measures, greener feed as well as low waste systems is urgently needed, to keep production activities within the carrying capacity of ecosystems. Coupled emergy and economic analyses can provide better insight into the environmental and economic benefits of fish production systems and help solve the problems encountered during policy making.     

Land use in Korean tidal wetlands: impacts and management strategies

The coastal landscapes in southwestern Korea include a diverse array of tidal wetlands and salt marshes. These coastal zones link the ecological functions of marine tidal wetlands and freshwater ecosystems with terrestrial ecosystems. They are rich in biological diversity and play important roles in sustaining ecological health and processing environmental pollutants. Korean tidal wetlands are particularly important as nurseries for economically important fishes and habitats for migratory birds. Diking, draining, tourism, and conversion to agricultural and urban uses have adversely affected Korean tidal wetlands. Recent large development projects have contributed to further losses. Environmental impact assessments conducted for projects affecting tidal wetlands and their surrounding landscapes should be customized for application to these special settings. Adequate environmental impact assessments will include classification of hydrogeomorphic units and consideration of their responses to biological and environmental stressors. As is true worldwide, Korean laws and regulations are changing to be more favorable to the conservation and protection of tidal wetlands. More public education needs to be done at the local level to build support for tidal wetland conservation. Some key public education points include the role of tidal wetlands in maintaining healthy fish populations and reducing impacts of nonpoint source pollution. There is also a need to develop procedures for integrating economic and environmental objectives within the overall context of sustainable management and land uses.     

An economic analysis of environmental protection and management: An example from the Philippines

Summary The island of Palawan covers some 12000 km² and is located in the southwest of the Philippines archipelago. It is a beautiful and as yet relatively unspoilt island but in recent years the social and economic pressures on its natural resources and environment have begun to mount. If present trends continue, severe environmental damage will result. In recognition of this danger, the Philippines government and the European Economic Community have commissioned the preparation of an Integrated Environmental Program (IEP) for the island, as part of an overall economic development program. Phase one of the IEP study comprised an assessment of the island's resources and present situation and the formulation of a plan for the future protection of its environment, taking due account of the need for continuing economic development.An analysis was made of the likely economic returns from the proposed environmental protection program, using conventional benefit-cost analysis methodology. Due to the inadequate data base and the wide-ranging assumptions which had to be made, this was inevitably very approximate in nature. It was carried out in terms of the three main types of conservation activity proposed, namely land-based conservation, mangrove conservation and inshore marine conservation, and the program as a whole. The main benefits and costs were identified and, where appropriate, quantified for inclusion in the analysis.Choice of discount rate and length of analysis period are critical factors affecting the economics of environmental protection, which essentially involves the pursuit of long-term rather than short-term gains, output in the immediate future being restricted to the level of long-term sustained yield for the benefit of future generations. Use of the high discount rates customarily applied for project analysis in countries such as the Philippines (typically, 10–15 percent) places a heavy premium on short-term gains and attributes little or no value to benefits and costs further in the future. To take account of this problem the present values of costs and benefits were calculated using low discount rates of zero and 5 percent. Though this was a necessarily crude and arbitrary method of adjustment it was considered to be a better alternative than that of following normal convention and applying the high rates of discount customarily used in the Philippines.The analysis indicated that the various conservation activities could be expected to produce acceptable, though not spectacular, levels of economic return. Mangrove conservation would be particularly beneficial and the irrigation benefits from preserving river base flows and preventing an increase in peak floods, by means of catchment protection, would be high. The unquantifiable ecological and social benefits would also be substantial.Christopher Finney is Chief Economist of Hunting Technical Services Limited, UK, a major consulting firm involved in planning and implementation of agricultural development overseas, and has been with the firm since 1962. He is an agricultural economist with particular interest and experience in the fields of irrigation, livestock, farm mechanisation, general agriculture and conservation. He has worked on a wide variety of projects in numerous countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Mr Stanley Western is a senior soil scientist and land use planner with the same company. Since joining the firm in 1960 he has undertaken a very wide range of resource assessment and planning assignments in Asia, Africa and Latin America. He was Team Leader on the Palawan Integrated Environmental Program planning study.     

Evaluating aquacultural use of thermal effluents: An application of system dynamics to environmental problem solving

Given the ecological burden imposed by power plants located in the coastal zone, efforts to improve the marginal benefits realized from their operation are warranted. Indeed, if this source of environmental pollution can be utilized to compensate for past ecological damage, then the benefits will be magnified many-fold.This study addresses the economic feasibility of utilizing heated effluent water from power plants to invigorate the growth of oysters raised under controlled conditions. The preliminary findings indicate that given proper combinations of system capacity, supplemental nutrient supplies, sea water flow and temperature gradients, such an operation is feasible.This is also a demonstration of a viable application of a sophisticated computer modeling approach to environmental problems. System Dynamics a technique pioneered at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, is applied to evaluate the physical, biological, and economic interrelationships of the aquacultural system variables. It offers many advantages for the environmental manager and researcher, a number of which are realized in the present investigation.     

An Ecological Integrity Index for Littoral Wetlands in Agricultural Catchments of Semiarid Mediterranean Regions

The main goal of the present study was to develop an ecological integrity index for littoral wetland management and conservation in semiarid Mediterranean areas that have been highly impacted by agriculture, including the selection of pressure and state indicators at landscape and wetlands scales that reflect the status, condition, and trends of wetlands ecosystems. We used a causality framework based on the relationship between pressure of anthropogenic activities and the ecological state of wetlands and their catchments, integrating environmental, biologic, economic, and social issues. From the application of 51 indicators in 7 littoral wetlands in the southeastern Iberian Peninsula, we selected 12 indicators (5 at catchment scale and 7 at wetland scale) to constitute the ecological integrity index proposed. The potential nitrogen export per area at catchment scale and the potential relative nitrogen export from the area surrounding the wetlands were the best pressure single predictors of state indicators with a causal relationship with environmental meaning. Wetlands in catchments with more agriculture had less ecological integrity than those in less impacted areas. A wide riparian zone in some wetlands acts as a buffer area, diminishing the effects of intensive agriculture. The index of ecological integrity developed here has a number of essential characteristics that make it a useful tool for ecosystem managers and decision-makers. The index can be used to (1) assess and control ecological integrity, (2) diagnose probable causes of ecological impairment, (3) establish criteria for protecting and restoring wetland ecosystems, and (4) integrate catchment management. Published online     

Incentive pricing and cost recovery at the basin scale

Incentive pricing programs have potential to promote economically efficient water use patterns and provide a revenue source to compensate for environmental damages. However, incentive pricing may impose disproportionate costs and aggravate poverty where high prices are levied for basic human needs. This paper presents an analysis of a two-tiered water pricing system that sets a low price for subsistence needs, while charging a price equal to marginal cost, including environmental cost, for discretionary uses. This pricing arrangement can promote efficient and sustainable water use patterns, goals set by the European Water Framework Directive, while meeting subsistence needs of poor households. Using data from the Rio Grande Basin of North America, a dynamic nonlinear program, maximizes the basin's total net economic and environmental benefits subject to several hydrological and institutional constraints. Supply costs, environmental costs, and resource costs are integrated in a model of a river basin's hydrology, economics, and institutions. Three programs are compared: (1) Law of the River, in which water allocations and prices are determined by rules governing water transfers; (2) marginal cost pricing, in which households pay the full marginal cost of supplying treated water; (3) two-tiered pricing, in which households' subsistence water needs are priced cheaply, while discretionary uses are priced at efficient levels. Compared to the Law of the River and marginal cost pricing, two-tiered pricing performs well for efficiency and adequately for sustainability and equity. Findings provide a general framework for formulating water pricing programs that promote economically and environmentally efficient water use programs while also addressing other policy goals.     

Measurement of the scarcity of soil in agriculture

The paper defines the concept of land degradation and costs and effects of soil erosion. Through the concept of optimal levels of soil erosion, a conceptual model of the social costs of soil degradation is elaborated. The discussion focuses on the measurement aspects of the economic scarcity of soil in the agriculture sector. Reliable estimates of the true impacts of soil degradation can only be made if data on marginal damage costs and marginal conservation costs are available. The different scarcity indicators are evaluated and competitive land rental prices are considered as appropriate in indicating soil scarcity in agriculture.     

The application of an indicator based on taxonomic distinctness for UK marine biodiversity assessments

Mankind needs to use the resources and opportunities offered by the marine environment while protecting ecological processes and systems. This is the foundation for sustainable development, which can only be achieved by adopting an appropriate management approach. Whether internationally or at a regional scale, successful management of marine ecosystems needs to be based on a scientifically robust approach to monitoring environmental change. Within such a framework, the conservation of marine biological diversity is problematic, as many conventional measures of diversity are not appropriate for measuring the types of change that require management. New indicators are required and in this paper we summarise some of the current methodology being used to derive such indices, which may be used to evaluate the effectiveness of marine stewardship initiatives. Through a series of examples we demonstrate the application of the taxonomic distinctness indicator of biodiversity to marine environmental assessment and its development towards becoming an operational tool.