Impacts of urban greenspace on offsetting carbon emissions for middle Korea

Carbon dioxide is an important greenhouse gas and a major agent of climate change. This study quantified carbon (C) emissions from energy consumption and C storage and uptake by greenspace for three cities in middle Korea: Chuncheon, Kangleung, and Seoul. Carbon emissions were estimated using C emission coefficients for fossil fuels consumed. Carbon storage and uptake by woody plants were computed applying biomass equations and radial growth rates. The soils in Chuncheon were cored to analyze organic C storage. Annual C emissions were 37.0 t/ha/yr in Kangleung, 47.2 t/ha/yr in Chuncheon, and 264.9 t/ha/yr in Seoul. Mean C storage by woody plants ranged from 26.0 to 60.1 t/ha for natural lands within the study cities, and from 4.7 to 7.2 t/ha for urban lands (all land use types except natural and agricultural lands). Mean annual C uptake by woody plants ranged from 1.60 to 3.91 t/ha/yr for natural lands within the cities, and from 0.53 to 0.80 t/ha/yr for urban lands. There were no significant differences (95% confidence level) between the cities in C storage and uptake per ha for urban lands. Organic C storage in Chuncheon soils (to a depth of 60 cm) averaged 31.6 t/ha for natural lands and 24.8 t/ha for urban lands. Woody plants stored an amount of C equivalent to 6.0-59.1% of total C emissions within the cities, and annually offset total C emissions by 0.5-2.2%. Carbon storage in soils was 1.2 times greater than that by woody plants in Chuncheon. The C reduction benefits of woody plants were greater in Chuncheon and Kangleung, where areal distribution of natural lands was larger and the population density lower than in Seoul. Strategies to increase C storage and uptake by urban greenspace were explored.     

Grey relation analysis of carbon dioxide emissions from industrial production and energy uses in Taiwan

This study aims to identify key factors affecting energy-induced CO₂emission changes from 34 industries in Taiwan, in order to have an integrated understanding of the industrial environmental-economic-energy performance and to provide insights for relevant policy making in Taiwan. Grey relation analysis was used in this paper to analyse how energy-induced CO₂emissions from 34 industries in Taiwan are affected by the factors: production, total energy consumption, coal, oil, gas and electricity uses. The methodology was modified by taking account of the evolutionary direction among relevant factors. Furthermore, tests of sensitivity and stability, which are seldom discussed in most grey relation analyses, were conducted to ensure the reliability of outcomes. We found that values ranging from 0·3 to 0·5 are appropriate, and the analytical results with value of 0·5 offer moderate distinguishing effects and good stability. Results indicate that industrial production has the closest relationship with aggregate CO₂emission changes; electricity consumption the second in importance. It reveals that the economy in Taiwan relied heavily on CO₂intensive industries, and that electricity consumption had become more important for economic growth. The relational order of fuels is electricity, coal, oil then gas, accordant with their CO₂emission coefficients in Taiwan. The positive relational grade of aggregate production implies that the aggregate industrial CO₂intensity tended to decline. The total energy consumption had a smaller and negative relational grade with CO₂emissions, and implies an improvement on aggregate energy intensity, while the CO₂emission coefficient increased. For industries with significant influence on CO₂emissions, the total energy consumption had the largest relational grades. It is important to reduce the energy intensity of these industries. Nevertheless, it is also critical to decouple energy consumption and production to reduce the impacts of CO₂mitigation on economic growth.     

Managing carbon emissions in China through building energy efficiency

This paper attempts to analyse the role of building energy efficiency (BEE) in China in addressing climate change mitigation. It provides an analysis of the current situation and future prospects for the adoption of BEE technologies in Chinese cities. It outlines the economic and institutional barriers to large-scale deployment of the sustainable, low-carbon, and even carbon-free construction techniques. Based on a comprehensive overview of energy demand characteristics and development trends driven by economic and demographic growth, different policy tools for cost-effective CO₂ emission reduction in the Chinese construction sector are described. We propose a comprehensive approach combining building design and construction, and the urban planning and building material industries, in order to drastically improve BEE during this period of rapid urban development. A coherent institutional framework needs to be established to ensure the implementation of efficiency policies. Regulatory and incentive options should be integrated into the policy portfolios of BEE to minimise the efficiency gap and to realise sizeable carbon emissions cuts in the next decades. We analyse in detail several policies and instruments, and formulate relevant policy proposals fostering low-carbon construction technology in China. Specifically, Our analysis shows that improving building energy efficiency can generate considerable carbon emissions reduction credits with competitive price under the CDM framework.     

Impacts of changes in land use and fragmentation patterns on Atlantic coastal forests in northern Spain

Changes in forested landscapes may have important consequences for ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation. In northern Spain, major changes in land use occurred during the second half of the 20th century, but their impacts on forests have not been quantified. We evaluated the dynamics of landscape and forest distribution patterns between 1957 and 2003 in Fragas do Eume Natural Park (northwestern Spain). We used orthoimages and a set of standard landscape metrics to determine transitions between land cover classes and to examine forest distribution patterns. Eucalypt plantations showed the greatest increase in area (197%) over time. Furthermore, transitions to eucalypt plantations were found in all major land cover classes. Forest showed a net decline of 20% in total area and represented 30% of the landscape area in 2003. Forest losses were mainly due to eucalypt plantations and the building of a water reservoir, while forest gains were due to increases in shrubland, meadows and cultivated fields which had been recolonised. Forest patch size and core area decreased, and edge length increased over time. In turn, increases were obtained in mean distance between forest patches, and in adjacency to eucalypt plantations and to a water reservoir. These results suggest an increase in forest fragmentation from 1957 to 2003, as well as a change in the nature of the habitat surrounding forest patches. This study shows that land use changes, mostly from eucalypt plantation intensification, negatively affected forested habitats, although some regeneration was ongoing through ecological succession from land abandonment.     

Reducing carbon emissions in Portugal: the relative roles of fossil fuel prices,energy efficiency,and carbon taxation

We assess the role of fossil fuel prices, energy efficiency, and carbon taxation in achieving climate policy goals using a dynamic general-equilibrium model of the Portuguese economy. Given the forecasts for international fossil fuel prices, improving energy efficiency and implementing a new carbon tax have significantly different economic and budgetary effects. Greater energy efficiency reduces emissions and has a positive economic effect, but increases public and foreign debt. A carbon tax reduces emissions at a cost for the economy, but leads to positive effects on public and foreign debt. Thus, it is important to pursue both strategies. We estimate that under the reference-price scenario, a steady energy efficiency gain of 2%–2.5% per year and a carbon tax of at least 35 € per tCO₂ are needed to achieve the stated goal of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 2030 by an amount equivalent to 40% of the emissions in 1990. These views were fully integrated in a proposal presented by the Commission for Environmental Tax Reform to the Portuguese Government in September 2014, and then discussed in Parliament in November 2014, before enacting a new carbon tax on 1 January 2015.     

Toward sustainable use of natural resources: Nexus between resource rents,affluence, energy intensity and carbon emissions in developing and transition economies

Sustainable use of natural resources would entail ensuring that derived economic benefits today do not undermine the welfare of generations to come. On this basis, this study examines the nexus between natural resource rents and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions disaggregated into production and consumption-based (i.e., trade-adjusted) CO₂ emissions for a selected panel of 45 developing and transition economies over the period 1995–2017. The empirical model also incorporates the impacts of population, affluence, and energy intensity. The results show that affluence increases production-based CO₂ emissions by 1.407%, with the EKC's predicted inverted U-shaped curve only explaining consumption-based CO₂ emissions. Economic reliance on natural resource rents and energy intensification contribute 0.022% and 0.766%, respectively, to CO₂ emissions embedded in territorial production inventories and 0.035% and 0.583%, respectively, to CO₂ emissions embedded in consumption inventories. The bootstrap non-causality test shows that historical data on each variable has significant predictive power for future CO₂ emissions from both sources. The historical information about natural resource rents has significant predictive power over the future levels of affluence and energy intensity. Clearly, the results show that the environmental impact of natural resource rents is stronger when CO₂ emissions are adjusted for trade and varies among the countries, with Bangladesh, Guinea, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Vietnam, and Zimbabwe among the most affected countries. Overall, this study provides motivation for policies to keep the use of natural resources within sustainable limits.     

Reducing carbon emissions through improved household energy efficiency in the UK

A number of schemes to increase household energy efficiency have operated in the UK over the last 5–10 years. This paper evaluates their effectiveness in terms of reducing household energy use, carbon emissions and fuel poverty. It then draws on the quantitative results of these schemes, and published plans for their continuation, to model an extended and expanded Household Energy Efficiency Scenario to 2020, using an integrated economy–energy–environment model of the UK. The results suggest that while such schemes can play a significant role in reducing carbon emissions from households, much more ambitious schemes than those currently implemented will be necessary to offset the underlying growth in these emissions. Finally, the results are compared with the UK government's own estimates, in its Climate Change Programme, of carbon emission reductions from such schemes to 2010. The paper concludes that the government's estimates are somewhat optimistic, and that it will need substantial new policy measures beyond those already announced if its carbon reduction targets in this area are to be met. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of increased wood energy consumption on carbon storage in forests of the United States

Large but feasible increases that have been projected for the production of wood energy in the United States can be expected to significantly alter the current carbon storage patterns in US forest vegetation. The 1976 net wood increment left after forest cutting equals about 136 × 10⁶ tons of carbon/year, with about 60% of the increment found in merchantable trees, and the remainder in nonmerchantable components.Achieving 5–10 quads of wood energy beyond 1976 levels by the year 2010 can significantly change current carbon storage patterns with the magnitude of change dependent on the extent of residue harvest to meet energy goals, and the rate of future forest growth. Complete loss of the apparent net wood increment is a possible outcome.Although the future growth and harvest situation cannot be known now, a range of possible scenarios suggests that US forests in the year 2010 will store much less carbon than today, thus significantly changing their role in the global carbon cycle.     

Soil organic carbon decomposition and carbon pools in temperate and sub-tropical forests in China

Decomposition of soil organic carbon (SOC) is a critical component of the global carbon cycle, and accurate estimates of SOC decomposition are important for forest carbon modeling and ultimately for decision making relative to carbon sequestration and mitigation of global climate change. We determined the major pools of SOC in four sites representing major forest types in China: temperate forests at Changbai Mountain (CBM) and Qilian Mountain (QLM), and sub-tropical forests at Yujiang (YJ) and Liping (LP) counties. A 90-day laboratory incubation was conducted to measure CO(2) evolution from forest soils from each site, and data from the incubation study were fitted to a three-pool first-order model that separated mineralizable soil organic carbon into active (C(a)), slow (C(s)) and resistant (C(r)) carbon pools. Results indicate that: (1) the rate of SOC decomposition in the sub-tropical zone was faster than that in the temperature zone, (2) The C(a) pool comprised approximately 1-3% of SOC with an average mean residence time (MRT) of 219 days. The C(s) pool comprised approximately 25-65% with an average MRT of 78 yr. The C(r) pool accounted for approximately 35-80% of SOC, (3) The YJ site in the sub-tropical zone had the greatest C(a) pool and the lowest MRT, while the QLM in the temperature zone had the greatest MRT for both the C(a) and C(s) pools. The results suggest a higher capacity for long-term C sequestration as SOC in temperature forests than in sub-tropical forests.     

Impacts on air pollution in urban areas

Environmental management involves controlling various forms of pollution to levels that do not pose a threat to the health of the people and the environment in general. This paper presents a framework to analyze sources of local air pollution in cities. Using an OLS model, an investigation is performed of the relationship among the concentrations of air pollutants [more precisely, concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO₂), dust, nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), carbon oxide (CO) and ozone (O₃)], economic activities, and meteorology. Time series analysis leads to a model, that explains a high degree of the variance in the air pollution data. The model is applied to daily time series from three measurement stations in innsbruck, Austria. Estimation results of the model generally fit with the expected relations. Space heating influences SO₂, dust, and NO, while NO₂ levels are primarily affected by traffic. These results also indicate interdependent relations among the pollutants NO, NO₂, O₃, and CO; O₃ levels depend on temperature and sunshine.     

Impacts of urban agriculture in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Urban agriculturalists keeping mainly cross-bred dairy cattle in four different density areas in the city of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania were investigated as to whether they had information about the damaging effects of their animals on the environment. They responded to questions related to five issues of animal activity that damaged the urban environment. The findings revealed that, on average, all four socioeconomic groups possessed information about the damaging effects which their animals caused. Moreover, the people of the highest and quasi-medium socioeconomic status, who in turn kept the most cattle, were the most aware. Most agriculturalists keeping cattle, therefore, lived with the contradiction that they recognized the damaging effects of the animals. Using a conceptual model, several reasons are given as to why people persist in keeping the cattle. These reasons reside at four levels: government, ministry, city council and the individuals who keep cattle. After examining the reasons for keeping dairy cattle in the city, the author proposes changes at all four levels to reduce the serious urban environmental damage.     

Devising an integrated methodology for analyzing energy use and CO2 emissions from Taiwan's petrochemical industries

Input-output modeling and multiplier analysis are used to assess Taiwan's five petrochemical industries, based upon their economic contribution and potential impacts on energy consumption and CO2 emission. In addition, a consolidated index system was developed for evaluating energy and economic efficiencies as well as targets for CO2 reduction. Results indicate that petrochemical materials (PM) make a major contribution to economic development, with lesser contributions from plastic materials (PL) and artificial fibres (AF). PM has the highest energy multiplier while PL has the largest induced potential for energy consumption. Plastic and rubber products (PP, RP) are relatively insignificant energy consumers. AF has the highest CO2 multiplier, and its induced potential for CO2 emission is the most significant. The consolidated index shows that the upstream petrochemical industries perform rather poorly in an integrated view of economic, energy, and CO2 emission, and should be seen as the primary targets for CO2 reduction. Investment of the petrochemical industries in Taiwan should be adjusted to improve energy efficiency, economic bases, and lower CO2 emissions.     

Atmospheric emissions of nitrous oxide, methane, and carbon dioxide from different nitrogen fertilizers

Alternative N fertilizers that produce low greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from soil are needed to reduce the impacts of agricultural practices on global warming potential (GWP). We quantified and compared growing season fluxes of NO, CH, and CO resulting from applications of different N fertilizer sources, urea (U), urea-ammonium nitrate (UAN), ammonium nitrate (NHNO), poultry litter, and commercially available, enhanced-efficiency N fertilizers as follows: polymer-coated urea (ESN), SuperU, UAN + AgrotainPlus, and poultry litter + AgrotainPlus in a no-till corn ( L.) production system. Greenhouse gas fluxes were measured during two growing seasons using static, vented chambers. The ESN delayed the NO flux peak by 3 to 4 wk compared with other N sources. No significant differences were observed in NO emissions among the enhanced-efficiency and traditional inorganic N sources, except for ESN in 2009. Cumulative growing season NO emission from poultry litter was significantly greater than from inorganic N sources. The NO loss (2-yr average) as a percentage of N applied ranged from 0.69% for SuperU to 4.5% for poultry litter. The CH-C and CO-C emissions were impacted by environmental factors, such as temperature and moisture, more than the N source. There was no significant difference in corn yield among all N sources in both years. Site specifics and climate conditions may be responsible for the differences among the results of this study and some of the previously published studies. Our results demonstrate that N fertilizer source and climate conditions need consideration when selecting N sources to reduce GHG emissions.     

3,4-Dimethylpyrazol phosphate effect on nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, ammonia, and carbon dioxide emissions from grasslands

Intensively managed grasslands are potentially a large source of NH3, N2O, and NO emissions because of the large input of nitrogen (N) in fertilizers. Addition of nitrification inhibitors (NI) to fertilizers maintains soil N in ammonium form. Consequently, N2O and NO losses are less likely to occur and the potential for N utilization is increased, and NH3 volatilization may be increased. In the present study, we evaluated the effectiveness of the nitrification inhibitor 3,4-dimethylpyrazol phosphate (DMPP) on NH3, N2O, NO, and CO2 emissions following the application of 97 kg N ha(-1) as ammonium sulfate nitrate (ASN) and 97 kg NH4+ -N ha(-1) as cattle slurry to a mixed clover-ryegrass sward in the Basque Country (northern Spain). After slurry application, 16.0 and 0.7% of the NH4+ -N applied was lost in the form of N2O and NO, respectively. The application of DMPP induced a decrease of 29 and 25% in N2O and NO emissions, respectively. After ASN application 4.6 and 2.8% of the N applied was lost as N2O and NO, respectively. The application of DMPP with ASN (as ENTEC 26; COMPO, Münster, Germany) unexpectedly did not significantly reduce N2O emissions, but induced a decrease of 44% in NO emissions. The amount of NH4+ -N lost in the form of NH3 following slurry and slurry + DMPP applications was 7.8 and 11.0%, respectively, the increase induced by DMPP not being statistically significant. Levels of CO2 emissions were unaffected in all cases by the use of DMPP. We conclude that DMPP is an efficient nitrification inhibitor to be used to reduce N2O and NO emissions from grasslands.     

Control strategies for vehicular NOx emissions in Guangzhou, China

Guangzhou is a city in southern China that has experienced very rapid economic development in recent years. The city's air has very high concentrations of various pollutants, including sulphur dioxide (SO₂), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), ozone (O₃) and particulate. This paper reviews the changes in air quality in the city over the past 15 years, and notes that a serious vehicular-related emissions problem has been superimposed on the traditional coal-burning problem evident in most Chinese cities. As NOx concentrations have increased, oxidants and photochemical smog now interact with the traditional SO₂ and particulate pollutants, leading to increased health risks and other environmental concerns.
Any responsible NOx control strategy for the city must include vehicle emission control measures. This paper reviews control strategies designed to abate vehicle emissions to fulfill the city's air quality improvement target in 2010. A cost-effectiveness analysis suggests that, while NOx emission control is expensive, vehicular emission standards could achieve a relatively sizable emissions reduction at reasonable cost. To achieve the 2010 air quality target of NOx, advanced implementation of EURO3 standards is recommended, substituting for the EURO2 currently envisioned in the national regulations. Related technical options, including fuel quality improvements and inspection/maintenance (I/M) upgrades (ASM or IM240), are assessed as well.     

Assessing the benefits of community forests: an evaluation of the recreational use benefits of two urban fringe Woodlands

In 1989 the Countryside and Forestry Commissions launched a national programme to create Community Forests on the fringes of major towns and cities in England and Wales. The assumption that such forests will be of benefit to the community at large was tested by means of surveys of two existing multi‐purpose woodlands adjacent to major conurbations. Contingent valuation, travel cost and time cost methods of environmental valuation were used to estimate the existing user benefits of the two woodlands for recreation. The study highlights weaknesses in the travel cost approach when applied to recreational facilities located near urban fringe areas which can be accessed on foot. The results of the two surveys are discussed and compared with similar results for more rural woodlands/ forests. The study suggests that on social grounds at least the concept of Community Forests should be pursued with recreation benefits alone exceeding management costs by a factor of three.     

Lessons learned from natural and industrial analogues for storage of carbon dioxide

The deployment of CCS (carbon capture and storage) at industrial scale implies the development of effective monitoring tools. Noble gases are tracers usually proposed to track CO₂. This methodology, combined with the geochemistry of carbon isotopes, has been tested on available analogues.At first, gases from natural analogues were sampled in the Colorado Plateau and in the French carbogaseous provinces, in both well-confined and leaking-sites. Second, we performed a 2-years tracing experience on an underground natural gas storage, sampling gas each month during injection and withdrawal periods.In natural analogues, the geochemical fingerprints are dependent on the containment criterion and on the geological context, giving tools to detect a leakage of deep-CO₂ toward surface. This study also provides information on the origin of CO₂, as well as residence time of fluids within the crust and clues on the physico-chemical processes occurring during the geological story.The study on the industrial analogue demonstrates the feasibility of using noble gases as tracers of CO₂. Withdrawn gases follow geochemical trends coherent with mixing processes between injected gas end-members. Physico-chemical processes revealed by the tracing occur at transient state.These two complementary studies proved the interest of geochemical monitoring to survey the CO₂ behaviour, and gave information on its use.     

A methodology for estimation of vehicle emissions in an urban environment: an example from Greater Manchester

Road transport is a major contributor to urban air pollution. The introduction of local air qua lity management in the UK will require objective test procedures to evaluate and prioritise the air pollution benefits of existing transport systems and proposed developments. This methodology has been developed to assist the land use and transport planning professionals in evaluating current and potential future impacts on air quality. The method couples an emissions estimation procedure to a traffic flow database. It requires data on emission factors, the composition of the vehicle fleet, vehicle control technologies and the daily traffic flow profile. With these data, it is possible to generate emission estimates per kilometre, link or road as selected by the user. Forecasts can be made by varying input variables. The current methodology allows prediction of five or more pollutant species/classes, limited only by availability of emission factors. The method utilises a commercially available personal computer based spreadsheet. Further coupling of the method to a geographical information system will improve the decision support capability of the method.     

Projections of highway vehicle population,energy demand,and CO2 emissions in India to 2040

This paper presents projections of motor vehicles, oil demand, and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions for India through the year 2040. The populations of highway vehicles and two‐wheelers are projected under three different scenarios on the basis of economic growth and average household size in India. The results show that by 2040, the number of highway vehicles in India would be 206‐309 million. The oil demand projections for the Indian transportation sector are based on a set of nine scenarios arising out of three vehicle‐growth and three fuel‐economy scenarios. The combined effects of vehicle‐growth and fuel‐economy scenarios, together with the change in annual vehicle usage, result in a projected demand in 2040 by the transportation sector in India of 404‐719 million metric tons (8.5‐15.1 million barrels per day). The corresponding annual CO₂ emissions are projected to be 1.2‐2.2 billion metric tons.