Who Visits a National Park and What do They Get Out of It?: A Joint Visitor Cluster Analysis and Travel Cost Model for Yellowstone National Park

Yellowstone National Park visitor data were obtained from a survey collected for the National Park Service by the Park Studies Unit at the University of Idaho. Travel cost models have been conducted for national parks in the United States; however, this study builds on these studies and investigates how benefits vary by types of visitors who participate in different activities while at the park. Visitor clusters were developed based on activities in which a visitor participated while at the park. The clusters were analyzed and then incorporated into a travel cost model to determine the economic value (consumer surplus) that the different visitor groups received from visiting the park. The model was estimated using a zero-truncated negative binomial regression corrected for endogenous stratification. The travel cost price variable was estimated using both 1/3 and 1/4 the wage rate to test for sensitivity to opportunity cost specification. The average benefit across all visitor cluster groups was estimated at between $235 and $276 per person per trip. However, per trip benefits varied substantially across clusters; from $90 to $103 for the “value picnickers,” to $185–$263 for the “backcountry enthusiasts,” $189–$278 for the “do it all adventurists,” $204–$303 for the “windshield tourists,” and $323–$714 for the “creature comfort” cluster group.     

WATER PRICE RESPONSIVENESS OF COMMERCIAL ESTABLISHMENTS1

ABSTRACT: Pricing policy in water allocation has become of more concern as some areas find water is indeed a scarce resource. Demand estimates, where the quantity purchased-value in use relationships are of concern, have been made in other studies for residential, industrial, and agricultural uses in many areas of the country. The price-quantity relations for water use in commercial firms are estimated and discussed for several different types of stores in this study. A derived demand model is used to estimate commercial demand in the Miami, Florida, area. The price elasticity was generally low (inelastic) for all groups studied except for department stores. This group was found to have an elastic demand for water at all prices above $0.93 per thousand gallons purchased per month, where the mean price for this part of the sample was $1.24. The major implication of the study is that commercial establishments may be responsive to price changes over the long run, much as has already been shown for other types of user groups in other studies.     

Analysis of Feedstock Supply Costs for Wood-fired Electric Power Plants in Liberia, West Africa

In Liberia, as in many developing countries, electrification of towns and cities throughout the country has long been a major development goal. However, fuel expenditures by the Liberian Electricity Corporation (LEC) for its rural public stations represent a major and growing burden on the financially hard-pressed utility. In this paper we evaluate the economics of supplying wood to rural electric power plants utilizing different sources of feedstock. We also evaluate the cost implications of differences in wood supply requirements based on the use of steam or gasifier technology, and from variation in plant utilization level.
The wood supply we consider as sources are: (1) retired rubber trees; (2) the harvesting of secondary-growth forest just before the land is returned to temporary cultivation; (3) the establishment of commercial short-rotation wood energy plantations; and (4) adding to the system of shifting agriculture the planting of fast-growing wood species. The results indicate that wood can probably be supplied under a wide range of supply and demand conditions for US$1.00–1.70 per GJ. We estimate that wood steam plants can generate power for about $0.09-0.14 per kWh and gasifier plants for $0.10-0.18 per kWh. These costs are well below the present cost of oil-based rural electric power generation in Liberia (about $0.20–0.27 per kWh).     

Estimating the Recreation Demand and Economic Value of Mountain Biking in Moab,Utah: An Application of Count Data Models

This paper reports the results of both standard and truncated count data travel cost demand models for estimating demand for and the economic value to participants in mountain biking in the Moab, Utah, area. The empirical estimates for average trip demand per person per season were 2.25 and 2.53 trips under truncated Poisson and truncated negative binomial models, respectively. Consumer surplus per person per trip for both models was approximately US $585. The total annual use value for mountain biking in the Moab area was US $1.33 million. This value suggests that this recreation has a higher value than most other activities in the area and that public land managers should be aware of the relative value of mountain biking as they make allocation decisions.     

Evaluating agricultural nonpoint-source pollution programs in two Lake Erie tributaries

During the past three decades, numerous government programs have encouraged Lake Erie basin farmers to adopt practices that reduce water pollution. The first section of this paper summarizes these state and federal government agricultural pollution abatement programs in watersheds of two prominent Lake Erie tributaries, the Maumee River and Sandusky River. Expenditures are summarized for each program, total expenditures in each county are estimated, and cost effectiveness of program expenditures (i.e., cost per metric ton of soil saved) are analyzed. Farmers received nearly $143 million as incentive payments to implement agricultural nonpoint source pollution abatement programs in the Maumee and Sandusky River watersheds from 1987 to 1997. About 95% of these funds was from federal sources. On average, these payments totaled about $7000 per farm or about $30 per farm acre (annualized equivalent of $2 per acre) within the watersheds. Our analysis raises questions about how efficiently these incentive payments were allocated. The majority of Agricultural Conservation Program (ACP) funds appear to have been spent on less cost-effective practices. Also, geographic areas with relatively low (high) soil erosion rates received relatively large (small) funding.     

VALUE OF WATER IN IRRIGATED CROP PRODUCTION USING DERIVED DEMAND FUNCTIONS: A CASE STUDY OF SOUTH SASKATCHEWAN RIVER IRRIGATION DISTRICT1

ABSTRACT: Water abundance has led most North American societies to use water freely without priorizing its use. As water scarcity becomes reality in the southern part of Saskatchewan, planners and managers of water require information about the value of water in irrigation, as well as in alternative uses. In this study, the value of water to the producer in irrigation is developed both for the short and long run. The basis of this imputation is a derived demand function for water using linear programming. Water demand was bound to be inelastic at lower prices, and highly elastic at higher prices. The short-run value of water varied between $0.44 and $127.82 (1986 dollars) per acre-foot for different levels of product prices. However, the long-run value was estimated between zero and $1.59 per acre-foot of water.     

Recreation benefits of natural area characteristics at the El Yunque National Forest

The paper applies the Contingent Valuation Method using a visitor survey to determine trip values to three rivers in northeastern Puerto Rico. Sample data were obtained from 984 interviews conducted in 13 sites during the summer months. The trip value is statistically decomposed into components representing natural features and recreation activities. The median net economic value of a river visit without waterfalls or foot trails is $96. Recreation at rivers with both waterfalls and foot trails has a median value of $138 per trip. The presence of waterfalls accounts for $23 and foot trails $19 per trip. This information can be pertinent for managers in selecting recreation site locations and protecting them from competing uses.     

EFFECT OF INFLUENT PHOSPHORUS REDUCTIONS ON GREAT LAKES SEWAGE TREATMENT COSTS1

ABSTRACT: Controlling phosphorus sources, such as laundry detergents, for eutrophication control has been the aim of water resources management in many areas. However, the advisability of limiting phosphorus in raw wastewater continues to be debated. One aspect that has received little attention is the cost savings at sewage treatment plants practing phosphorus removal. It is estimated, based on available data and observations where detergent phosphorus has been reduced, that cost savings could range from about $0.20 to $1.70 per capita per year for an influent reduction of about 1.5 mg/L of phosphorus. These savings result mostly from a decrease in the amount of chemicals needed to remove phosphorus at the plant as well as a decrease in sludge production. For the U.S. Great Lakes basin, total annual savings amounting to several million dollars are projected given a basin-wide ban. Although estimates of cost savings are presented for the Great Lakes basin, the results are applicable to other areas where phosphorus controls are being considered.     

Mount St. Helens: A case study of managing for change in wildland recreation

Mount St. Helens provides an interesting case study of a forest and wildland area that has been radically altered in recent history. As a result of volcanic activity, the recreation environment has changed with respect to the setting, climbing opportunities, and motivations for mountaineering. An evaluation process using both qualitative and quantitative methods was developed to determine what the motivations, demographic characteristics, and preferred management techniques were for the posteruption Mount St. Helens mountain-climbing visitor. Results suggest that changes have occurred in the “new” or posteruption climbing visitor. These changes have not all been congruent with those anticipated by management. For example, the climbing visitor is now less interested in climbing opportunities and more concerned with seeing the crater and other volcanic-related features. This article discusses the findings of this research in light of how resource managers might consider the issue of visitor changes in both demands and types of uses. For example, determining quota numbers based on sociological determinants (e.g., desire for solitude) need to be firmly grounded in who the visitors actually are rather than who they were. Consequently, management tools such as the Recreational Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) and Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) may need to be altered to accommodate a changing resource or visitor base. These and other findings have implications for the future management practices of the Mount St. Helens area and other environments where the recreation resources have undergone rapid and profound change.     

Financial viability of reforesting reclaimed surface mined lands, the burden of site conversion costs, and carbon payments as reforestation incentives

US Federal law mandates that mined land be returned by mine operators to a condition capable of supporting its pre-mining use or a higher use. Previously forested lands have commonly been reclaimed to hayland/pasture or wildlife habitat, and most of these lands have been abandoned from management and rendered non-productive. This situation has left landowners in the position of converting these reclaimed mined lands to forests at a later date, if they choose to make them economically productive. Such land-use conversion, however, comes with a substantial up-front cost to the landowner, which makes the financial viability of such a conversion questionable. We examine the financial viability of reforestation of these previously reclaimed mine lands by calculating land expectation value (LEV) under a range of conditions that include forest type, site quality, and reforestation intensity. We find that conversion to white pine is viable on higher quality sites under low to moderate interest rates with low or high timber prices, but conversion to mixed hardwoods is only profitable under the high price scenario with low interest rates, and only on higher quality sites. We also consider the implications of a shift in reforestation burden from the landowner to the mine operator, and results suggest that including costs of reforestation as part of the mining operation creates a financially viable forest enterprise for landowners under all scenarios for both white pine and mixed hardwoods. Two forms of carbon payments that could encourage reforestation of previously reclaimed mined lands also are examined: an annual payment based upon the total accumulated carbon found on-site in a given year, and an annual payment based on only the increment of carbon storage each year. Our carbon payment results indicate that annual values of up to $5.17 per ton of carbon stored in hardwoods and $9.39 per ton of carbon stored in pines would be required to make reforestation profitable under the poorest conditions (high interest rates, low prices, and poor quality site) when the payment is based on accumulated on-site carbon, although lower values are required under more favorable scenarios. Payments that are based upon the annual increment of carbon must fall in the range of $8.66–$71.88 per ton of carbon stored in hardwoods and $0–$83.29 per ton of carbon stored in pines to make reforestation financially viable.     

A hedonic model of public market transactions for open space protection

A hedonic price function is estimated that illustrates how the price per acre of open space paid by public buyers such as counties or land trusts, is influenced by local demand and supply factors. The empirical regression model is illustrated using 133 public transactions (73% are purchases and 27% are easements) of open space in the Front Range of Colorado. The mean price per acre was $13 635. If a property provides access to water bodies, this feature increases the price per acre by $937, while adjacency of the parcel to existing park or open space adds $11 039 an acre. A 1% increase in county population results in a 0.27% increase in price per acre. Easements cost $6783 less than purchases, a sizeable cost saving. The prediction capability of the hedonic price equation may be an alternative to traditional real estate appraisal techniques when agencies must determine fair market values of prospective open space parcels that vary in attributes from existing ones.     

Field-Level Financial Assessment of Contour Prairie Strips for Enhancement of Environmental Quality

The impacts of strategically located contour prairie strips on sediment and nutrient runoff export from watersheds maintained under an annual row crop production system have been studied at a long-term research site in central Iowa. Data from 2007 to 2011 indicate that the contour prairie strips utilized within row crop-dominated landscapes have greater than proportionate and positive effects on the functioning of biophysical systems. Crop producers and land management agencies require comprehensive information about the Best Management Practices with regard to performance efficacy, operational/management parameters, and the full range of financial parameters. Here, a farm-level financial model assesses the establishment, management, and opportunity costs of contour prairie strips within cropped fields. Annualized, depending on variable opportunity costs the 15-year present value cost of utilizing contour prairie strips ranges from $590 to $865 ha^?1 year^?1 ($240–$350 ac^?1 year^?1). Expressed in the context of “treatment area” (e.g., in this study 1 ha of prairie treats 10 ha of crops), the costs of contour prairie strips can also be viewed as $59 to about $87 per treated hectare ($24–$35 ac^?1). If prairie strips were under a 15-year CRP contract, total per acre cost to farmers would be reduced by over 85 %. Based on sediment, phosphorus, and nitrogen export data from the related field studies and across low, medium, and high land rent scenarios, a megagram (Mg) of soil retained within the watershed costs between $7.79 and $11.46 mg^?1, phosphorus retained costs between $6.97 and $10.25 kg^?1, and nitrogen retained costs between $1.59 and $2.34 kg^?1. Based on overall project results, contour prairie strips may well become one of the key conservation practices used to sustain US Corn Belt agriculture in the decades to come.     

Estimating the effectiveness of a vehicle miles travelled tax in reducing particulate matter emissions

This study estimates the effectiveness of a vehicle miles travelled (VMT) tax in controlling mobile-source emissions of particulate matter (PM_2.5) in a non-attainment area located in northern Utah. Using a recently updated household-level dataset, the study finds no evidence of an endogenous relationship between choice of vehicle type and VMT. VMT elasticities are also estimated with respect to cost per mile that are in some cases larger in magnitude than those reported in previous studies. Based on vehicle emissions tests performed by the Houston Advanced Research Center, the study estimates the reduction in particulate emissions that would occur with two different sets of VMT tax rates. Principal findings are that a VMT tax rate of $0.003 per passenger car mile and $0.01 per light-duty truck mile (resulting in a mean annual tax burden of $128 per household in the first year) would reduce annual particulate emissions by between 7% and 11%, depending upon the degree of heterogeneity in household driving behaviour. Assuming constant elasticity, this means that at tax rates of $0.006 and $0.02 per mile for passenger cars and light-duty trucks, respectively (resulting in double the mean annual tax burden), annual particulate emissions would be reduced by between 12% and 23%. Both the advantages and limitations of the VMT tax are discussed.     

Quantitative assessment of people-oriented forestry in Bangladesh: a case study in the Tangail forest division

Forests represent more than just a livelihood to many people in developing countries. In Bangladesh, for example, overwhelming poverty and socio-economic pressures have resulted in an unstable situation where intensive pressure on forest resources is having increasingly negative consequences for the population. Some studies have evaluated the benefits of people-oriented forestry activities from an investment, as well as a participant, point of view. In the study area located in the Tangail Forest Division, a total of 11,854 ha of woodlot, 2704 ha of agroforestry and 945 km of strip plantations have been raised in a benefit-sharing program that is inclusive of land encroachers and other economically disadvantaged people. Since 2000-2001, a total of 3716 ha of woodlot, 890 ha of agroforestry and 163 km of strip plantations have been harvested to the benefit of 6326 individuals. Investment analysis indicates that woodlot plantation is not financially viable but agroforestry is the most profitable. These results were somewhat unexpected since initial analysis suggested that the woodlot plantation profit would be greater than, or at least equal to, that of the agroforestry plantation if the number of planted seedlings per unit area was taken into account. The per unit area net present value (NPV) was highest in the agroforestry plantation ($1662) and negative in the woodlot plantation (-$397). The benefit cost ratio (BCR) was also highest in the agroforestry plantation (1.64) and lowest in the woodlot plantation (0.86). This study also showed that some individuals who were formally classified as encroachers have now become vital stakeholders. On average, participants received $800, $1866 and $1327 over the course of 13 years from strip, agroforestry and woodlot plantations, respectively. Average annual return per participant was $62, $144 and $102, respectively, which was in addition to each individual's yearly income. This added income is a significant contribution to monetary resources and improves socio-economic conditions at a grass roots level. Overall then this program can be considered a financial success as a plantation raising strategy. However, despite this financial progress, the program cannot be considered a true form of participatory people-oriented forestry because it shows serious deviations from the original concept or model for participatory people-oriented forestry that is outlined in the project document. These discrepancies are especially notable with regard to (i) beneficiary selection, (ii) gender equity, (iii) professional attitude and corruption, (iv) funding and (v) program approach. However, other countries faced with similar challenges of forest overuse and degradation may adopt this practice for achieving self-reliance and environmental stability.     

Non-market valuation of off-highway vehicle recreation in Larimer County, Colorado: Implications of trail closures

Few economic studies are available to measure off-highway vehicle recreation benefits foregone when trails must be closed to protect the environment. This paper estimates the non-market benefits associated with off-highway vehicle (OHV) recreation on National Forest lands in Larimer County, Colorado. We use a contingent valuation model (CVM) to estimate benefits to OHV users, which includes dirt bike riders, all terrain vehicle (ATV) riders, and 4-wheel drive (4 × 4) users. Using CVM we find the mean consumer surplus estimates to be $78 per person per day. These results are consistent with the few previous estimates of OHV recreation benefits. This equates to a per trail per summer consumer surplus of at least between $219,467 and $296,876, and a county level surplus per summer to be at least between $796,447 and $1,077,367. These benefits can be compared to environmental costs to obtain a more complete picture of the effects of trail closure, as well as the negative spillovers to non-motorized users.     

From Superfund Site to Developable Property: The Case of Rentokil

The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (42 USC §§9601 et seq.), commonly known as Superfund, was enacted on 11 December 1980 to facilitate the clean-up of hazardous waste sites. Superfund authorizes the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to compel responsible parties to clean up such sites. Superfund has been the source of extensive criticism since its inception. In response to this criticism, the EPA undertook a series of administrative reforms in 1993 to make the Superfund programme faster, fairer and more efficient. As of September 2000, active site remediation was complete at 757 (43%) of the 1779 national priority list (NPL) sites and 218 sites (12%) had been deleted from the NPL. Rentokil, a former wood-preserving plant on a 10 acre (4 ha) site in Henrico County, Virginia, was brought to the Virginia Health Department's attention as a threat to human health and the environment in 1989, was listed on the NPL the same year and was fully cleaned up in 1999. The cost of cleaning up Rentokil was $12 million, or $37.08 per square foot ($412 per square metre). The site is proposed to be redeveloped for tax-generating light industrial and commercial use. Rentokil reflects the EPA's implementation of several reforms geared toward reconciling cost considerations with remedy effectiveness and expedient implementation, and facilitating redevelopment. This case study's examination of Rentokil's progression through the Superfund process is intended to provide planning practitioners and students with insight into the Superfund programme and process, as well as an awareness of the challenges confronting Superfund's success.     

Rock climbers' attitudes toward management of climbing and the use of bolts

The purpose of this research was to verify that various segments of the rock climbing community have different attitudes toward resource management and to aid in the understanding of attitudinal differences that can affect rock-climbing management. Respondents were given an on-site questionnaire; 400 usable surveys were collected from 13 different locations in the United States. Respondents identified themselves according to the type of climbing they participated in (e.g., traditional climbing, sport climbing, and hybrid climbing). Factor analysis identified five usable factors: bolt placement/use, need for management, reservations about management, appropriateness of bolts, and climbers' self-perception. A repeated-measures analysis of variance identified significant differences among responses from traditional and sport climbers on four of the five scales used to measures attitudes. The variance among the climbing subgroups indicated that various climbing groups had significantly different attitudes toward management. All climbers surveyed had reservations about the management process. Results from the analysis indicated that climbers from all three groups (traditional, sport, and hybrid) felt that managers did not adequately understand the activity of climbing, climbers did not adequately understand the management process, climbing was not treated fairly in the management process in comparison to other activities, and climbing was micromanaged.     

The contingent behavior of charter fishing participants on the Chesapeake Bay: Welfare estimates associated with water quality improvements

Water quality in the Chesapeake Bay has deteriorated over recent years. Historically, fishing has contributed to the region's local economy in terms of commercial and recreational harvests. A contingent behavior model is used to estimate welfare measures for charter fishing participants with regard to a hypothetical improvement in water quality. Using a truncated Poisson count model corrected for endogenous stratification, it was found that charter fishers not only contribute to the local market economy, but they also place positive non-market value on preserving the Bay's water quality. Using two estimates for travels costs it is estimated that the individual consumer surplus is $200 and $117 per trip, and the average individual consumer surplus values for an improvement in water quality is $75 and $44 for two models estimated.     

A TRADE-OFF ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVE WATER USES1

ABSTRACT: In the western United States, hydropower and agriculture often cempete for surface waters. Since water markets are imperfect, allocations are often made through institutional arrangements and policy The purpose of this paper is to compare the gross water returns from agriculture with hydropower in terms of water use in Idaho. For the year 1986, returns from agriculture averaged $200 per acre-foot, and returns from hydropower averaged $8.00 per acre-foot.     

Trends in the intensity of copper use in Japan since 1960

Between 1960 and 2000, Japan's real GDP grew 620%. However, its consumption of copper increased only 345%, thanks to a 38% decline in the country's intensity of copper use. In light of concerns today over the possible impact of future economic development in China, India, and other developing countries on the long-run availability of mineral resources, this study proposes to explore the causes for this dramatic decline in the Japanese intensity of copper use.For some time, we have known that the intensity of metal use within a country depends on its level of economic development, usually measured by per capita income, as well as on technological change, long-run price trends, and other factors whose influence varies, more or less, with time. This study finds that rising per capita income has increased the intensity of copper use in Japan over the entire period examined. Moreover, this positive effect is expected to continue until per capita income—$44,830 in 2000—reaches $53,000. Thereafter, further advances will tend to reduce the intensity of copper use. Conversely, new copper-saving technologies and other time-related variables have on average reduced the intensity of copper use by 2.9% a year, an amount sufficient not only to offset the positive effects of growing per capita income but also to reduce intensity of use by 38%.