降雨和土地利用对地表径流的影响-以北京北护城河周边区域为例

以北京北护城河周边区域为例,探讨了降雨和土地利用对地表径流的影响。选取了2011-2012 年4-11 月的15 场降雨,分别代表小雨、中雨、大雨、暴雨、大暴雨和特大暴雨这6 个雨量级。利用校准的雨洪管理模型（Storm Water Management Model, SWMM）分别模拟每次降雨事件下研究区7 个控制断面的地表径流深度。结果表明,地表径流深度随降雨量的增加显著线性增加。当降雨量在不同量级之间变化时,地表径流深度的变化幅度不尽相同。在不同的降雨事件中,降雨量和地表径流深度随时间的动态变化趋势可能有很大的差异,但地表径流深度在某一时刻的值的高低均决定于之前1~2 h 的降雨量,而地表径流深度的总体上升或下降趋势均决定于前期累积的降雨量。地表径流深度随渗透面积比例的增加显著下降,且变化曲线存在临界阈值（为15%~20%）。在暴雨、大暴雨和特大暴雨时,渗透面积比例对地表径流的影响更大。研究结果可为控制汛期城市地表径流量和洪峰流量、减少城市内涝提供土地利用和管理方面的理论依据和决策建议。     

森林植被变化对流域水文影响的争论

针对“森林能否增雨、森林能否减少年径流量、调节枯水径流以及能否削减洪峰”等问题，综述了各种观点，分析了出现分歧的原因。作者认为森林对降水量的影响不大，森林植被的存在一般减少年径流量，而对调节枯水径流以及削减洪峰等的作用则因地带、因流域尺度而异。研究方法的局限性、研究对象的复杂性以及区域差异和尺度的影响，是导致争论的主要原因。正确评价森林的水文效应，应该注意地带性差异、尺度的影响以及不同森林的类型等。     

不同施工阶段地表灰尘重金属污染比较研究

通过不同粒径地表灰尘量和重金属浓度分析,对挖槽、结构和装修等3个施工阶段重金属污染程度进行探讨。结果表明,挖槽阶段单位面积地表灰尘量最大,结构阶段重金属污染水平最高。随着施工进度,105~150μm粒径灰尘量比例逐步减少,105μm以下粒径灰尘量比例逐步增加。5种重金属浓度比例在不同施工阶段表现不同,锌浓度比例逐步降低,铅浓度比例逐步增加。     

居住小区道路雨水径流消减潜力分析

居住小区建设的不断发展在缓解城市居住问题的同时,也给城市环境带来了一系列的负面效应,而减轻这些负效应的关键就在于尽可能的减少小区的不透水地表面积以使地表径流量得到消减。道路作为居住区地表的重要组成部分,在解决上述问题中应当重点考虑。本文以南京市桌新建居住区为例,从减少道路面积和改变地面铺装方式两个角度来寻找减少小区内部不透水铺装面积的方法,并估算了由此所能消减的地表径流量。根据实例分析可知,通过这两种方法可以切实有效的减少小区不透水面积进而减少雨水的径流量。     

高地下水位地区透水停车场的水文控制效果

为确定高地下水位地区透水铺装对路面径流的水文控制效果,在上海市区建造了4个实验性透水铺装单元与1个不透水铺装对照,其中3个为设有防水衬底的不透型设施分别为透水混凝土铺装(设施Ⅰ)、水泥稳定碎石基层/缝隙透水砖面层(设施Ⅱ)、碎石基层/缝隙透水砖面层(设施Ⅲ),1个普通缝隙透水砖铺装(设施Ⅳ),以及1个不透水混凝土对照(设施0).历时1年监测了实际降雨条件下4种实验设施的表面径流、排水管出流流量及表面渗透速率,考察不同设施的径流总量削减率、峰值削减及峰现延迟能力.结果表明,缝隙透水砖面层的表面稳定渗透速率明显小于透水混凝土面层,使用1年后,2种面层表面稳定渗透速率均明显下降;4种设施的表面产流均无显著差异;3种不透型设施的就地消纳水量能力均较弱,年径流总量控制率分别为24.2%、28.5%、28.4%,排水管不发生出流的控制降雨量分别为5.2 mm、7.8 mm、7.8 mm;设施Ⅰ的峰值削减与峰现延迟效果弱于设施Ⅱ及设施Ⅲ,且3种设施的峰值削减率和峰现延迟时间与降雨强度呈现显著负相关性.     

北京典型汇水区域雨水径流温度特征及影响因素分析

城市化发展导致不透水地表面积率大幅攀升,由此带来的一系列问题逐渐受到人们关注,夏季城市汇水区域地表产生高温径流后汇入下游受纳水体所造成的雨水径流热污染,对水生态、水环境造成不良影响的风险尤为突出。选取北京市典型汇水区域,对2021—2022年多场降雨径流出流温度进行监测与分析,并对气象因素、下垫面温度及管道内径流热量等数据进行同步采集,运用皮尔逊相关系数法分析其影响因素。结果表明：研究区域夏季降雨常出现雨水径流温度升高现象,降水量小于12.5mm、降雨历时短于250 min的降雨场次更易于升温,升温幅度最高可达4.1℃;径流温度升高往往出现在径流过程初期,温度达峰平均时间为38 min;径流是否升温与降雨强度峰值位置之间没有明显关系;气温、不透水地表初始时刻温度、降雨历时及降水量是雨水径流温度的极显著影响因素（P<0.01）;降雨期间气温、降雨历时、不透水地表初始时刻温度和管道内壁温度4个指标,可以基本解释研究区域96.7%的径流温度输出情况。     

流域土地利用/覆被对洪峰的影响研究——以太湖上游西苕溪流域为例

土地利用/覆被变化是影响流域水文过程的重要因素。基于太湖流域在全国的重要性及太湖流域LUCC洪水效应研究的迫切性,选择太湖上游西苕溪流域为研究区,利用分布式水文模型HEC-HMS模拟5种土地利用/覆被情景下的2次典型洪水过程（5年一遇的台风型洪涝和5年一遇的梅雨型洪涝）,定量区分单一土地利用/覆被对洪峰的影响程度。结果表明,对于同场降雨,5种土地利用/覆被情景下的洪峰流量大小顺序为：林地＜疏林灌丛＜草地＜耕地＜建设用地,峰现时间先后依次是建设用地、耕地、草地、疏林灌丛、林地。同样的土地利用变化对洪峰的影响程度,5年一遇的台风型洪水比5年一遇的梅雨型洪水反应剧烈。对洪峰流量影响最大的土地利用变化是其它用地变化为建设用地。对于同场降雨,5种土地利用/覆被情景下的洪水水文要素（洪峰流量、滞时）之间存在显著的定量关系。建设用地大大改变了洪峰形态,使流域原有的坦化洪水波形的能力降低,而林地则具有削减和延缓洪峰的作用。     

水源涵养型重点生态功能区生态状况变化研究

水源涵养型重点生态功能区对于保护中国大江大河源头区及水源补给区具有重要意义。文章以生态系统状况指数为指标,通过生态系统组成与结构、生态系统生产能力、生态系统服务功能分析了2000-2010年中国水源涵养型重点生态功能区的生态状况变化态势。结果表明水源涵养型重点生态功能区以森林和草地生态系统为主。2000-2010年,三江源区和若尔盖区生态系统状况整体表现为好转,甘南区、祁连山区和南岭山地区生态系统状况整体表现为基本稳定大小兴安岭区、长白山区和阿尔泰山地区生态系统状况整体表现为轻度退化。大小兴安岭区退化面积占该区面积的比例最大,为42.54%;三江源区和祁连山区退化面积比例较小,分别为6.26%和6.93%。大小兴安岭区、长白山区和南岭山地区以轻度和中度退化为主,阿尔泰山地区以中度和重度退化为主,甘南区以轻度退化为主。     

西安市夏季热环境时空格局及公园减热效应

以Landsat TM、OLI和TIRS遥感影像为基础,采用单窗算法和分裂窗算法,反演和分析了西安市中心城区相应时间点上的热场温度;采用分型网络算法提取城市热岛范围,分析了西安中心城区1988-2014年间热岛效应空间分布及其动态变化特征;利用混合光谱分解的方法提取不同下垫面分量,研究了城市地表温度与不同下垫面因素之间的关系,并以西安市中心城区内10个公园为例,分析了公园下垫面类型对周边地区温度的定量影响。结果表明:1988-2006年,西安中心城区高温与最高温区所占比例增大,2006-2014年所占比例减小。26 a间,热岛区和次热岛区的面积增加,冷岛区与次冷岛区的面积减少,面积变化的绝对值依次为:冷岛区中间区次热岛区次冷岛区热岛区。中心城区地表植被覆盖度与地表温度呈对数负相关,不透水面与地表温度呈对数正相关关系。公园内部温度与公园的周长、面积呈显著负相关关系,与周长面积比呈显著正相关;公园平均降温范围与公园形状指数呈现较强的正相关关系,降温幅度与公园水域面积和形状指数呈较低的正相关。     

基于负荷历时曲线法的流域污染负荷特征解析与纳污能力研究——以沙河流域为例

以位于天津的沙河流域为研究对象,以水污染防治攻坚目标作为水质目标(地表水环境质量Ⅲ类),基于沙河桥监测断面2006～2018年水文水质数据,利用负荷历时曲线法(Load Duration Curve)分析不同水文条件下的污染负荷输出特征,分析点源与面源污染对水质的影响,并核算沙河流域总磷、总氮和COD的环境容量与负荷削减量.研究结果表明:沙河桥断面汛期总磷、总氮和COD最大日负荷量均值大于非汛期,有较强的纳污能力;总磷、总氮各月份浓度均超过地表Ⅲ类水标准,COD未超过Ⅲ类水标准.在地表水环境质量Ⅲ类的目标下,沙河桥断面总磷在低流量区未超过水环境容量,在高流量区、中高流量区、中流量区、中低流量区均超过水环境容量,需要削减的负荷分别为0.086、0.011、0.014、0.001t/d;总氮在各流量水平下均超标,高流量区、中高流量区、中流量区、中低流量区、低流量区削减量分别为11.811、4.386、2.327、0.466、0.008t/d;COD在各流量水平下均未超标,无需削减;流量保证率在大于75%区间为中低流量区,水质主要受点源负荷的影响,沙河桥断面在这一流量区间基本满足允许负荷要求...     

三峡库区景观格局粒度效应及其对土地利用变化过程的响应

1992—2012年,受大型水利工程建设影响,三峡库区土地利用/覆被发生剧烈变化,论文选取工程建设重要时点1992、2002、2006和2012年的土地利用覆被图,探讨景观格局指数在30~1 000 m粒度范围内的粒度效应及其对土地利用变化过程的响应。结果表明：1）所选取的27个景观指数中,有14个对空间粒度变化高度敏感、3个中度敏感、7个低敏感、3个不敏感;不同类型景观（除裸地外）粒度效应规律相似。2）景观格局指数随粒度变粗呈5种变化规律：单调下降、单调上升、阶梯状上升、无明显变化、先增大后迅速下降。形状指数粒度效应对土地利用变化过程的响应明显,聚集度指数、面积-边缘指数、多样性指数随土地利用变化的特征不受粒度粗细影响。因此,景观格局分析最适宜粒度范围为30~60 m。3）1992—2012年三峡库区整体景观异质性增大、优势度降低、呈小斑块密集格局;耕地面积急剧下降、破碎化加剧,林地面积稳步提升,连通性提高。     

Landscape patterns and parcel boundaries: an analysis of composition and configuration of land use and land cover in south-central Indiana

In many areas of the world, socioeconomic and political factors are increasingly impacting spatial patterns of land use and land cover in the landscape. Much of the land in the United States has been divided using a grid-based system that was implemented to realize socioeconomic and political goals rather than to protect and conform to biophysical differences. The borders of individual parcels of land often reflect the boundary lines created by this system. These borders are important components of policies related to land management such as zoning and private land use decisions. The potential impact this system of land division may have on spatial patterns in a landscape remains unclear. The majority of landscape research has focused exclusively on biophysical differences occurring over relatively large areas of land and ignored possible finer-scale, human impacts on landscape composition and configuration. There is a need for research on spatial patterns occurring over areas that match socioeconomically or politically important units of land in order to improve understanding of relationships between human related processes and ecosystem functions and to create better management policies.This research explores whether the system of land parcelization is evident in patterns of land use and land cover in the landscape of south-central Indiana. In particular, it investigates whether parcel boundaries correspond to distinct changes in the composition and configuration of forest, developed, and agricultural lands. This research uses theory and methodology from geography, geographic information science, and landscape ecology to analyze patterns of land use and land cover in a rural to semi-rural county in south-central Indiana. A classification of a remotely sensed image is used as a basis for calculating metrics of landscape composition and configuration with the use of a geographic information system. The metrics are calculated for areas of forest, developed, and agricultural land associated with a sample of parcels chosen to represent all the parcels within Monroe County. The values for areas near the parcel boundaries are compared with the values for areas at relatively short distances from the parcel boundaries. This comparison indicates whether there is a distinct change in the composition or configuration of the landscape occurring at approximately the parcel boundaries.The results suggest that in Monroe County, Indiana, changes in the composition of the landscape, particularly the amount of area covered by agriculture and forest, correspond with parcel boundaries. Changes in the configuration of agricultural and, to a lesser extent, developed lands also occur near parcel boundaries. The results support the hypothesis that the grid-based system of parcelization has affected spatial patterns of land use and land cover. These results illustrate the potential impact socioeconomic and political systems may have on spatial patterns in a landscape.     

Land cover change and landscape fragmentation—comparing the utility of continuous and discrete analyses for a western Honduras region

Current studies of land cover change and landscape fragmentation rely predominantly on land cover classifications derived from remotely sensed images. However, limitations of traditional land cover classifications are numerous and well known. This research compares classification-based techniques (discrete data) to the use of vegetation indices (continuous data) for land cover modeling and analyses of landscape fragmentation for a study area in western Honduras. The study area typifies many regions of tropical developing countries, where a complex interaction of social and environmental factors have given rise to a dynamic mosaic of patches of reforestation and deforestation. Understanding the complex human dimensions of land use and land cover change in these parts of the world continues to present a challenge for researchers.The land cover modeling analysis compares two models using different formulations for the dependent variable: (i) a continuous analysis using a tobit model regressing the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), with non-forest values truncated at 0, on the variables elevation, slope, distance from roads and distance from the nearest market; and (ii) a discrete analysis using a probit model with threshold NDVI coverages (representing forest and non-forest). To examine the patterns of landscape fragmentation, a discrete analysis of a forest/non-forest classification using the software FRAGSTATS is compared to a continuous NDVI-based analysis using the local indicator of spatial association (LISA) statistic. Estimated marginal effects and overall predictive power are compared across the tobit and probit formulations. Because the tobit formulation included variation in the dependent variable for forested areas, greater information was retained regarding the subtle relationships among the independent variables and land cover. The LISA statistic, using the NDVI coverages as input, were helpful in the interpretation of the data and its spatial arrangement in the landscape, indicating that the LISA was a good complement to the FRAGSTATS, classification-based analysis. Given the LISA statistic is parametric and hence subject to outliers, whereas landscape metrics tend to be non-parametric, we found that the use of both FRAGSTATS and LISA together was more beneficial than either analysis by itself. While there is increasing awareness of the need for using continuous data for land cover modeling and fragmentation, this area remains little explored. The research presented provides insights for additional future applications utilizing continuous data analyses.     

Estimation of biomass distribution in Peninsular Malaysia and in the islands of Sumatra, Java and Borneo based on multi-resolution remote sensing land cover analysis

In this study we used high resolution (20 m) land cover maps to derive detailed information on land cover structure within the classes of a regional medium resolution (500 m) land cover map. This enabled improved biomass estimation for the medium resolution land cover classes. Although our results suggested that land cover maps based merely on medium resolution remote sensing data can be used to monitor the extent of forest cover, they also showed that these maps alone are not sufficient to produce reliable regional estimates on above ground biomass in insular Southeast Asia. A quarter of the study area was covered by sub-pixel size (500 m) mosaic of various land cover types containing 14% of biomass. In total, non-forest areas covered over 60% of the study area and included 43% of biomass. In these areas, highly fragmented within class land cover structure was shown to significantly affect biomass estimates. Therefore we conclude that forest/land cover monitoring based merely on medium resolution remote sensing data can no longer be used to sufficiently quantify carbon fluxes connected to land cover changes in insular Southeast Asia, but multi-resolution approaches are needed to perform this task.     

黄土丘陵区小流域土地覆被变化对径流产沙量的影响

为探讨黄土丘陵区小流域土地覆被变化特征及其对流域径流产沙量的影响,以黄土丘陵区吕二沟、罗玉沟及其嵌套流域(桥子沟)等3个小流域为研究对象,运用数理统计学、配对流域等方法定量分析了3个小流域不同研究时段内土地覆被变化对径流产沙量的影响.结果表明,1982~2004年间,林地面积以1.07%/a的速率快速递增是吕二沟流域土地覆被变化的最明显特征,而罗玉沟流域在国家坡改梯工程影响下,坡耕地面积大幅减少,1986~1995年间约73%坡耕地转化为梯田;结合配对流域法可知,土地覆被变化是导致流域径流和产沙减少的主要原因,在相同降雨条件下,径流深、泥沙量分别减少43.76%和35.23%.流域年径流模数与年降水量和流域森林覆被率均呈指数关系,流域森林覆被率增加5%,径流模数可减少18.43%~37.58%.     

红壤丘陵区森林植被恢复的增湿效应初探

红壤丘陵区森林植被恢复后，对水分和热量均有明显的调节作用，尽管林内穿透雨只占林外降水量的90％左右，但相对湿度始终高于林外，森林可以增湿、调湿，提高水分利用效率。同时，林内气温、地温始终低于林外，随着林龄的增长，这种作用愈加明显。     

农业源头流域景观异质性与溪流水质耦合关系

以丹江口库区胡家山流域为研究区域,分析了溪流枯、丰水期的水质变化特征,结合流域和河岸缓冲带景观类型及其格局,运用Spearman秩相关分析筛选了影响溪流水质的景观指数,利用逐步回归和冗余排序法定量描述景观格局与溪流水质的耦合关系.结果表明：溪流水质指标中氨氮和总磷浓度时空变化较大,其标准变异系数范围分别为69.8%~207.6%和52.0%~146.1%.景观类型中耕地和居民地是溪流水体污染的重要来源,两者在100m河岸缓冲带尺度上对氨氮的解释程度为58.6%,高于流域尺度;景观格局指数中蔓延度、林地和居民地斑块密度、林地和居民地最大斑块指数以及林地和耕地聚集度指数等显著影响溪流水质（P<0.05）,流域尺度上各景观类型的景观指数对总氮和总磷的解释程度分别介于71.1%~81.6%和74.5%~83.8%,均高于100m河岸缓冲带尺度,其中蔓延度对总氮和总磷均有显著影响（P<0.05）.无显著因子进入高锰酸盐指数模型中,其浓度变化是各景观指数共同作用的结果.此外,景观格局季节变化也显著影响溪流水质.枯水期景观指数能够更好的解释总氮和总磷变化,而丰水期对氨氮的解释程度要好于枯水期.     

Land Area Eligible for Afforestation and Reforestation within the Clean Development Mechanism: A Global Analysis of the Impact of Forest Definition

Within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Kyoto Protocol, countries have significant latitude to define a forest. The most important parameter affecting area designated as forest is the minimum crown cover which can be set between 10 and 30%. The choice will have implications for the amount of land available in a country for afforestation and reforestation activities within the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM-AR). In this paper, we present an analysis of the regional differences in land availability for CDM-AR projects. We then examine how the choice of a high or low threshold value for crown cover will affect the area available for CDM activities and how the limitations imposed by this element of the definition compares to other factors that are likely to limit CDM activities. Results represent a global analysis that included all countries not included in Annex I of the Kyoto Protocol, and examined the effect on land availability of a range of crown cover thresholds ranging from 10–30%. Of the 140 Non-Annex One countries, 107 countries were found to have a potential for CDM-AR projects. Asia had the largest amount of combined area suitable for CDM-AR at the 10% crown cover threshold level. However, at 30%, South America had the greatest amount of land available, and a large change in available land area, which increased by almost five times compared to what was available at the 10% threshold. The area available in Africa increased by a factor of 5.5. Central America showed the largest increase, to almost 10 times more at the 30% threshold. By contrast, within Asia, the area increase was comparatively less, but still the area nearly doubled. Globally, a low threshold of 10% crown cover excluded almost 2/3 of the land identified that was eligible at 30%, over 5 million km². The spatial analyses showed not only the effects of the choice of the crown cover criterion, but also where the land was available for CDM activities within each country at different thresholds. Protected areas account for 10–20% of the CDM-AR eligible area in most countries.     

不同土地利用/覆盖情景下东北沟流域植被生态需水量及其对产流影响

针对京津水源区上游生态环境建设需水与向下游多输水的矛盾现实,基于气象、土壤、土地利用/覆盖(1990年和2009年)数据,应用Penman-Monteith公式估算潜在蒸散量,再用土壤和植被信息对其进行修正,计算了水源区东北沟流域1990年、2009年及其他5种不同土地利用/覆盖情景下的最小生态需水量和适宜生态需水量。结果表明:2005-2009年4-10月潜在蒸散量是715.04 mm;2009年流域植被适宜生态需水量是399.42 mm,最小生态需水量是339.68 mm,比1990年的适宜和最小量分别多122.5 mm、144.5 mm;平水年的降雨均可满足各种情景生态需水要求,其中需水量较大的是情景Ⅲ(草地转化为林地),其适宜需水量达784.69×10⁴ m³,情景Ⅱ(林地转化为草地)的需水量最小,适宜需水量是687.27×10⁴ m³,该情景较适合向下游输水为目的的生态建设,但该情景实施的前提是建立下游向上游的生态补偿机制。     

上海市城市化进程中热环境响应的空间评价

利用Landsat TM/ETM+ 遥感数据解译与反演得到上海市1997~2009年的土地利用/覆盖类型图及热岛强度分布图,并分析其演变趋势,引入温度-植被指数(TVX)并采用TVX空间法定量研究了以建设用地扩张、生态用地减少为特点的城市化过程引起的热环境效应.研究表明,1997~2009年,上海市人口呈现从中心城至郊区的流动趋势;热岛强度分布与城市化建设密切相关,呈现“葫芦串-葡萄串-摊大饼型”的蔓延模式;以牺牲生态用地为代价的建设用地扩张造成研究区域地表温度的上升及植被覆盖度的下降,其中林地减少所引起的热环境效应最大.研究可为城市规划决策过程中不同城市化空间的拓展情景提供其可能的环境响应结果,从而完善气候变化适应性对策,推进城市生态系统的可持续发展.