Integrated water resources management for emergency situations: A case study of Macau

Integrated urban water management (IUWM) is a useful tool that can be used to alleviate water resource shortages in developing regions like Macau, where 98% of the raw water comes from mainland China. In Macau, scarce water resources deteriorate rapidly in emergency situations, such as accidental chemical spills upstream of the supply reservoir or salty tides. During these times, only the water from the two freshwater reservoirs in Macau can be used. In this study, we developed urban water management optimization models that integrated the raw water supply from the two reservoirs with various proposed governmental policies (wastewater reuse, rainwater collection, and water saving). We then determined how various water resource strategies would influence the urban water supply in Macau in emergency situations. Our results showed that, without imported raw water, the water supply from only the two Macau reservoirs would last for 7.95 days. However, when all the government policies were included in the model, the supply could be extended to 13.79 days. Out of the three non-conventional water resources, wastewater reuse is the most beneficial for increasing the Macau water supply, and rainwater collection also has great potential.     

基于人工社会模型的退田还湖生态补偿机制实例研究

基于补偿者和受偿者意愿的研究方法是建立切实可行的生态补偿机制的有效手段。为探讨在我国许多地区开展退田还湖生态补偿政策的有效实施机制,减少洪涝灾害与生态环境退化负面效应,研究构建了基于农户、政府和企业三类主体及其相互作用的生态补偿模型,并重点分析生态补偿标准、洪灾风险、生态环境保护、劳动力本地转移政策等因素对农户主体土地利用决策的影响。以鄱阳湖区莲湖乡为实例,以农户和企业从事生产活动的行为特征和政府宏观调控方式为基本准则,利用构建的多主体模型模拟了不同补偿机制下退田还湖政策可能产生的土地利用长期效应。结果表明,政府给予农户的经济补偿可以使农户自愿实施退田,但在不同情景下,政府实施退田还湖的代价和达到预期目标的时限差距显著。企业参与不仅能减轻政府的经济负担,同时也有利于剩余农村劳动力的转移。政府发展壮大当地经济,提高农业劳动力向非农产业转移的速度和质量,均有助于推进退田还湖政策的有效实施。     

山江湖地区农民参与政府主导生态建设工程的“生态-经济”效应感知

农民对参与政府主导生态建设工程后的“生态-经济”效应感知是决定其未来是否继续参与的根本或调整参与行为与心态的指针。使用参与式农村评估方法对山江湖区农民对参与生态建设后的“生态-经济”效应感知予以访谈,借助生态时限法和EXCEL软件分析访谈所取得的农民对“生态-经济”效应感知的认识,结果表明：①农民参与的经济效应感知强调自行山场投入、创造与分享,参与收益后农户常具有造血功能,对政府的依赖性有一定程度的松动;②农民参与的生态效应感知主要体现为水土流失减少、山泉水增多等第一生态效应反应,是否危害他们的生产、生活安全;③农民参与收益的衍生效应主要体现为生产稳定性、生活舒适度等,更多地强调生态与经济效应的衍生,具有不经意性;④主动改善是山江湖区农民“生态-经济”效应感知的主要方式,未来合适的适应性政策制定仅需在收益分配上考虑农民的参与即可激发农民参与积极性,为山江湖农民参与政府主导生态建设工程的调控提供合适路径。     

滏阳河流域的水资源问题

根据对华北地区水资源短缺最严重的滏阳河流域的实证研究表明,随着部门和上下游用水者之间用水竞争程度的加剧,流域从开放向闭合的转变,地下水位的逐年下降及引致的环境问题,节水的空间也变得十分有限。解决未来水资源短缺的问题很大程度上将依赖于如何运用政策、制度和经济措施实现水资源的优化配置和综合管理,提高灌区的运行绩效和实现有效的产权制度创新。     

华北地下水超采区农户节水灌溉技术认知分析——以河北省张家口市沽源县为例

目前我国华北地区面临严重的地下水超采问题,在地下水超采综合治理行动方案中明确提出要加强农业节水,调整农业种植结构。农户节水灌溉技术认知与农业节水效果密不可分,本文以河北省张家口市沽源县269份农户调查为样本,采用结构方程模型探索农户节水灌溉技术认知的内在机理。结果显示：农户个人特征、家庭生产特征、政策宣传特征和农户水资源稀缺性认知的路径系数分别为0.186、0.157、0.469和0.200。表明节水灌溉技术补助、培训和参观高效节水示范区对提升农户节水灌溉技术认知的效果显著。因此,在依靠政府技术资金支持的基础上,发现农户节水灌溉技术认知差异,制定完善的节水灌溉技术宣传推广体系,有利于提高华北地区农户采用节水灌溉技术的积极性。     

Plenty of water,not enough strategy: How inadequate accessibility,poor governance and a volatile government can tip the balance against ensuring water security: The case of Nepal

Water security is arguably the single most important factor regarding the future sustainability of our planet. Without water we have no life, and with depleting freshwater resources conflict can easily ensue. The intersection between hydrology and politics requires a delicate balancing from decision-makers to ensure policy is well-informed and science is well communicated. In this paper, we discuss water issues currently faced by Nepal, a nation where freshwater resources are abundant yet political pressures are threatening future water security. We argue that despite adequate water supplies a nation may still experience severe water insecurity, particularly if effective governance and equitable access are not prioritised. We explore potential policy options necessary to achieve a holistic framework for water resources management, which we suggest, need to consider water resource reliability, accessibility and governance as fundamental pillars for ensuring water security.     

地下水漏斗区农户冬小麦休耕意愿的影响因素及其生态补偿标准研究——以河北衡水为例

近年来,国家大力提倡耕地休养生息,推行土地休耕制度,以提高地力,保障农业可持续发展。由于水资源短缺已经成为制约我国华北地区经济社会发展的重要因素。华北地下水漏斗区作为土地休耕的三个试点之一,主要目标是退耕高耗水的冬小麦,实现“一季休耕、一季雨养”,以减少地下水用量,修复地下水环境。农户作为农村最主要的生产与经营主体,如何给予农户合理的补偿,使其有效地实施冬小麦休耕政策成为缓解华北地区水资源短缺的关键因素。论文运用问卷调查法、机会成本法与Logistic模型对意愿与补偿标准进行分析,探讨了河北衡水地下水漏斗区农户冬小麦休耕意愿的主要影响因素及其生态补偿标准的合理性,以便为我国科学合理地制定地下水漏斗区耕地轮作休耕政策提供理论依据。研究结果表明：1）农户的文化程度、家庭农业劳动力总数、抚养比、农户对地下水漏斗区冬小麦休耕态度、农户对政府实行政策的信任度与农户休耕意愿呈显著的正向影响;2）务农工日、耕地质量、人均耕地面积与农户休耕意愿呈显著的负向影响;3）只考虑冬小麦对地下水影响,不考虑农产品市场价格变化的影响,建议河北衡水地区休耕农户补偿标准为518元/亩（7 770元/hm²）。最后论文提出了因地制宜地制定地下水漏斗区冬小麦休耕的补偿政策,发展绿色产业,转移剩余劳动力,并做好休耕政策宣传力度等政策建议。     

The potential of water markets to allocate water between industry,agriculture, and public water utilities as an adaptation mechanism to climate change

One of the climate change scenarios that have been developed for the Netherlands predicts hotter and drier summers and a substantial drop in river discharge. This might lead to water scarcity with detrimental economic and environmental effects. Among the possible adaptation responses to climate change-induced water scarcity, the re-allocation of water resources among competing uses should also be considered. In this paper, we extend and apply a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model to assess the potential of water markets (water allocation according to its shadow price) to guide the allocation of scarce water across agriculture, manufacturing, and public water supply. We develop four scenarios in which the scope of water markets is increased from industry-specific to economy-wide. The results show that the agricultural sector bears nearly all of the losses from a new water-scarce climate, while the manufacturing sectors are able to mitigate their losses to a large extent by technical measures. Extending the scope of water markets unambiguously increases economic output and results in a re-allocation of water to the manufacturing sector from the agricultural sector and from public water services. If, perhaps for political reasons, public water services are excluded from water trading, water is re-allocated from agriculture to manufacturing. Depending on which sectors are included, the construction of a water market can have negative or positive effects on a sector’s output, and although the implementation of water markets may be positive for overall economic output and can hence assist adaptation, the effect on vulnerable or societally sensitive economic sectors, such as public water, should be taken into account when implementing such a market.     

Re-thinking water policy priorities in the Mediterranean region in view of climate change

Water is scarce in Mediterranean countries: cities are crowded with increasing demand; food is produced with large amounts of water; ecosystems demand more water that is often available; drought affects all. As climate change impacts become more noticeable and costlier, some current water management strategies will not be useful. According to the findings of CIRCE, the areas with limited water resources will increase in the coming decades with major consequences for the way we produce food and we protect ecosystems. Based on these projections this paper discusses water policy priorities for climate change adaptation in the Mediterranean. We first summarise the main challenges to water resources in Mediterranean countries and outline the risks and opportunities for water under climate change based on previous studies. Recognising the difficulty to go from precipitation to water policy, we then present a framework to evaluate water availability in response to natural and management conditions, with an example of application in the Ebro basin that exemplifies other Mediterranean areas. Then we evaluate adaptive capacity to understand the ability of Mediterranean countries to face, respond and recover from climate change impacts on water resources. Social and economic factors are key drivers of inequality in the adaptive capacity across the region. Based on the assessment of impacts and adaptive capacity we suggest thresholds for water policy to respond to climate change and link water scarcity indicators to relevant potential adaptation strategies. Our results suggest the need to further prioritise socially and economically sensitive policies.     

Integrating science,policy and farmers to reduce soil loss and sediment delivery in Flanders,Belgium

This paper describes the evolution of soil erosion perception with policy makers and farmers in Flanders, and how these changes have resulted in the emergence of a soil conservation policy. Until the mid 1990s, soil erosion and its related problems received little attention in the environmental debate. This has changed through increased interest in environmental issues in general, as well as an increasing number of scientific reports on soil erosion and sediment delivery. New legislation that made the sediment problem a big financial issue in 1995, however, was the main reason for the recognition of soil erosion as an environmental problem with the policy makers. Despite the lack of monitoring soil erosion, a soil conservation policy emerged recently, which is clearly represented in the 2001 “soil erosion decree” by the Flemish government. This policy provides important opportunities for soil conservation as it incorporates both scientists and farmers. The involvement of farmers in demonstration projects is crucial with this respect as they have to be convinced about the usefulness and applicability of soil conservation measures. Farmers also participate in the development of a management plan. However, the success of the new policy could be undermined by its rapid development. There is still a lack of data underpinning the status of the erosion problem, and, the goals of the policy are not clearly defined. Furthermore, the administrative organisation is currently not favourable for an optimal co-operation with the farmers.     

Is river rehabilitation economically viable in water-scarce basins?

Decisions on river rehabilitation actions are often based on cost-benefit analyses taking into account the costs and benefits of the considered management actions, but ecosystem services are often not included as benefits, despite recent evidences on the effects of river rehabilitations on ecosystem services. A cost-benefit analysis integrating market and non-market costs and benefits was undertaken in this study to assess the economic feasibility of a river rehabilitation project in a water scarce region, the Yarqon River Rehabilitation project (Israel). In this case, the costs included both the capital costs of implementing rehabilitation measures (including maintenance costs) and the opportunity costs of water allocation (foregone benefits to farmers from water provisioning for agriculture). The benefits of rehabilitation included the net marginal benefits of the cultural ecosystem services at local scale (estimated with a hedonic pricing method), and at regional scale (estimated with a value function transfer), in addition to the habitat service gene-pool protection (estimated with a replacement cost method). Bearing in mind the uncertainties surrounding water resource management decisions, especially in water scarce areas, a sensitivity and risk analysis was conducted using an analysis that included both Monte Carlo simulations and the standardized regression coefficients method. The rehabilitation of the Yarqon River provided positive net present values (approximately $139 million in 30-year period). This was thanks to the provision of cultural ecosystem services and despite the high rehabilitation costs, and that the massive water reallocation involved high foregone benefits to farmers. Therefore, these results highlight that river rehabilitation in water scarce regions can be economically viable due to the social amenity demand for urban rivers.     

黄河流域可供水量究竟有多少?

摘要:黄河是我国水资源最紧张的河流之一,但关于黄河流域可供水量,几个很权威的文献却差别很大,高的达到692×10⁸m³,低的低到580×10⁸m³。而20世纪90年代又出现了黄河流域天然径流大为减少的情况,平水年份下河川天然径流量比多年平均减少110×10⁸m³。所以,黄河流域的可供水量究竟有多少是急迫需要弄清的问题,因为它关系到黄河流域的水资源可持续利用战略决策。论文的研究结论是:在2010年水平年,在平水年条件下,黄河流域的可供水量只有550×10⁸～560×10⁸m³,其中地表水390×10⁸～400×10⁸m³,地下水160×10⁸m³。所以,黄河流域的可供水量比原来估算的最低数580×10⁸m³还低20×10⁸～30×10⁸m³,而比原来估计的最高数692×10⁸m³要低20%,差140×10⁸m³。这就给黄河流域的水资源供需平衡对策提出了更严峻的问题。     

滇池流域水污染防治收费政策实施绩效评估

分析了滇池流域现行的排污收费制度、污水处理收费制度和阶梯水价政策的实施效果,采用DEA方法的C2R模型和BC2模型对2001~2012年滇池流域水污染防治收费政策实施绩效进行了评估.结果表明:排污收费制度、污水处理收费制度和阶梯水价政策对降低滇池流域废水和污染物的排放以及提高流域用水效率均起到了较好的促进作用,且各政策实施绩效水平较高,综合效率值均值为0.902;影响滇池流域水污染防治收费政策的主要因素为单位COD排放工业增加值,可通过提高排污费征收标准或者排污费改税等措施,以进一步降低企业污染物的排放量;作为有效实施的环境经济政策,适当调整政策的征收标准,有利于提高各政策的实施效率.     

海河平原农业供水的决策分析模型

本文根据海河平原水源不足的问题,采用系统分析的方法,探讨了农业供水的对策。提出的决策分析模型可望适用于不同大小的区域。通过实际资料的分析得出实行节流、管理与开源的具体方案及经济效益。分析成果表明推行节水灌溉技术与管理措施是完全可行的。在建立节流系统(包括管带与滴灌及调整耕作制度、作物布局)和加强水管理的基础上,实行开源引江、引黄,可大大缩减调水规模,降低开源工程投资,缓和工农与城乡供水的矛盾。     

The water supply footprint (WSF): a strategic planning tool for sustainable regional and local water supplies

This paper introduces a new methodological approach of the ecological footprint explicitly addressing the sustainability of water supplies, which we call the water supply footprint (WSF). The WSF calculates the catchment area or water supply hinterland of a certain society and can serve as a strategic planning tool for local or regional water supplies linking the water demand with the water supply in a water supply footprint matrix. Based on regional water balances it estimates how much water can be appropriated for human use in an environmentally sustainable way.The proposed method is tested on the South East Queensland water supply in Australia, an area where water use restrictions are regularly imposed on the population. Applying the proposed method indicates that supply shortages may be avoided by considerably changing the organisation of water supply, thereby reducing and possibly even avoiding the necessity for large-scale supply side measures like additional sweet water reservoirs or desalination plants. In that way it is demonstrated that the WSF method is applicable at an early and strategic stage of water supply planning.     

Cap and trade policy for managing water competition from potential future carbon plantations

Carbon sequestration from reforestation can play a large role in mitigating global climate change. However, resulting interception of rainfall runoff may impose high irrigation, water supply and/or environmental flow costs. This article presents an assessment of water trade policy to manage fresh water supply, carbon sequestration trade-offs for the Murray-Darling Basin. A linked Australian high spatial resolution land use and global integrated assessment framework evaluated plausible and internally-consistent global scenarios to 2050 involving significant carbon planting incentive. Substantial flow loss from increased interception was estimated absent policy to balance carbon water trade-offs. Absent policy to address the trade-off, irrigation opportunity costs was estimated to substantially exceed carbon sequestration economic value in futures with significant carbon sequestration incentive. The value of integrating interception from new carbon plantings into the existing water trade system was estimated at $3.3 billion and $2.0 billion (2050 annual value) for our strong and moderately strong global climate action outlooks with our reference case assumptions. The conclusion that trade provision in policy to cap interception impacts can produce significant benefits in scenarios with significant carbon sequestration incentive remained robust over a very broad set of sensitivities tested with benefit estimated at over $1 billion annually at 2050 even for very conservative assumptions.     

Attitudes to conservation and water consumption

Sydney's water supply is under great pressure as the demand continues to rise. Demand mitigation strategies have had some success, but domestic consumption remains high. This paper discusses the attitudes of households to their water consumption in a search for ways in which domestic demand for water may be reduced. Evidence on attitudes of households in different kinds of housing was obtained using a telephone interview survey supplemented by information derived from focus groups drawn from households in the same areas. The information was collected in a period when strong water use restrictions were in place and major arguments were being mounted in favour of water pricing as a way of moderating demand. The paper argues that the complexity of the forces shaping demand needs to be understood in the context of the socio-demographic composition of households in different kinds of dwellings, as well as the cultural, behavioural and institutional aspects of consumption, if public policy is to be successful in reducing consumption and/or providing alternative domestic supplies of potable water.     

Scenario simulation of water security in China

Umited water resources, increasing demand, low use efficiency, and serious pollution result in severe water resource difficult in China. The evaluation of addressing water problems and the search for effective countermeasures that ensure sustainable water use are key to China‘ s sustainable development. The “compound water security“ consists of food security, life security, environmental security, and economic security. By establishing a conceptual model, the water security of China has been simulated in terms of four scenarios called BAU(the business-as-usual scenario), TEC(the technology and economics scenario), IVL(the institution, values, and lifestyles scenario) and TSD(toward sustainable development) in this paper. The results indicated that water crises, especially water shortages, are being experienced now and will continue to do so for a relatively long time in China and that it is possible to reach a basic balance between supply and demand of water and grain under the TSD developing pattern by a series of approaches including technological innovation, policy adjustments, and behaviour inducement.     

Managing climate change risks in New York City’s water system: assessment and adaptation planning

Managing risk by adapting long-lived infrastructure to the effects of climate change must become a regular part of planning for water supply, sewer, wastewater treatment, and other urban infrastructure during this century. The New York City Department of Environmental Protection (NYCDEP), the agency responsible for managing New York City’s (NYC) water supply, sewer, and wastewater treatment systems, has developed a climate risk management framework through its Climate Change Task Force, a government-university collaborative effort. Its purpose is to ensure that NYCDEP’s strategic and capital planning take into account the potential risks of climate change—sea-level rise, higher temperature, increases in extreme events, changes in drought and flood frequency and intensity, and changing precipitation patterns—on NYC’s water systems. This approach will enable NYCDEP and other agencies to incorporate adaptations to the risks of climate change into their management, investment, and policy decisions over the long term as a regular part of their planning activities. The framework includes a 9-step Adaptation Assessment procedure. Potential climate change adaptations are divided into management, infrastructure, and policy categories, and are assessed by their relevance in terms of climate change time-frame (immediate, medium, and long term), the capital cycle, costs, and other risks. The approach focuses on the water supply, sewer, and wastewater treatment systems of NYC, but has wide application for other urban areas, especially those in coastal locations.     

城市供水管网漏损控制潜力研究

在我国各城市普遍缺水的同时，城市供水管网的漏损状况却相当的严重，科学衡量漏损控制的潜力，对于控制漏损和科学地进行城市水资源规划和需求管理非常重要。从技术潜力、经济潜力、社会潜力三方面将城市供水管网漏损控制的潜力进行了分析。提出了以社会最优值作为漏损控制的目标，以社会潜力作为需求管理的依据，同时综合考虑技术潜力和经济潜力。社会最优控制水平和企业的经济漏损控制水平之间有时会存在很大差异。科学的划分政府和企业在控制漏损的义务是非常必要的，如果需要企业的漏损控制水平小于经济漏损水平时政府应该给予一定的补偿，这样才能增加企业控制管网漏损的积极性。