The potential of remote sensing for monitoring land cover changes and effects on physical geography in the area of Kayisdagi Mountain and its surroundings (Istanbul)

The effect of land cover change, from natural to anthropogenic, on physical geography conditions has been studied in Kayisdagi Mountain. Land degradation is the most important environmental issue involved in this study. Most forms of land degradation are natural processes accelerated by human activity. Land degradation is a human induced or natural process that negatively affects the ability of land to function effectively within an ecosystem. Environmental degradation from human pressure and land use has become a major problem in the study area because of high population growth, urbanization rate, and the associated rapid depletion of natural resources. When studying the cost of land degradation, it is not possible to ignore the role of urbanization. In particular, a major cause of deforestation is conversion to urban land. The paper reviews the principles of current remote sensing techniques considered particularly suitable for monitoring Kayisdagi Mountain and its surrounding land cover changes and their effects on physical geography conditions. In addition, this paper addresses the problem of how spatially explicit information about degradation processes in the study area rangelands can be derived from different time series of satellite data. The monitoring approach comprises the time period between 1990 and 2005. Satellite remote sensing techniques have proven to be cost effective in widespread land cover changes. Physical geography and particularly natural geomorphologic processes like erosion, mass movement, physical weathering, and chemical weathering features etc. have faced significant unnatural variation.     

Modeling land use/land cover change using remote sensing and geographic information systems: case study of the Seyhan Basin,Turkey

Land use and land cover (LULC) changes affect several natural environmental factors, including soil erosion, hydrological balance, biodiversity, and the climate, which ultimately impact societal well-being. Therefore, LULC changes are an important aspect of land management. One method used to analyze LULC changes is the mathematical modeling approach. In this study, Cellular Automata and Markov Chain (CA-MC) models were used to predict the LULC changes in the Seyhan Basin in Turkey that are likely to occur by 2036. Satellite multispectral imagery acquired in the years 1995, 2006, and 2016 were classified using the object-based classification method and used as the input data for the CA-MC model. Subsequently, the post-classification comparison technique was used to determine the parameters of the model to be simulated. The Markov Chain analyses and the multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) method were used to produce a transition probability matrix and land suitability maps, respectively. The model was validated using the Kappa index, which reached an overall level of 77%. Finally, the LULC changes were mapped for the year 2036 based on transition rules and a transition area matrix. The LULC prediction for the year 2036 showed a 50% increase in the built-up area class and a 7% decrease in the open spaces class compared to the LULC status of the reference year 2016. About an 8% increase in agricultural land is also likely to occur in 2036. About a 4% increase in shrub land and a 5% decrease in forest areas are also predicted.     

Spatio-temporal analysis of land use/land cover change and its effects on soil erosion (Case study in the Oplenac wine-producing area,Serbia)

In this paper, various spatial modelling techniques were applied to analyse changes in soil cover and their impact on soil erosion in the Oplenac wine-producing area in Serbia in the past (1985 and 2013) and in the future (with predictions for 2041). The Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs Sediment Delivery Ratio (InVEST SDR) model and the Modules for Land Use Change Evaluation (MOLUSCE) model, integrated with methods of remote sensing, were successfully applied and were shown to be valid tools for predicting the impact of Land Use Land Cover (LULC) changes when estimating soil loss. The results revealed that the greatest impact of land use changes between 1985 and 2013 was on a reduction in areas under vineyards and an extension of meadow and pasturelands as an individual and social response to economic conditions during the research period. The forecast for 2041 reflected the trends observed in the previous period, with the greatest changes witnessing an increase in urban areas and a decrease in areas of arable land. It was also found that the effect of LULC changes on spatio-temporal patterns in the Oplenac wine-producing area did not have a major impact on soil loss, meaning this area, with its good agro-climatic characteristics, is suitable for the intensification of agricultural production.     

Remote sensing imageries for land cover and water quality dynamics on the west coast of Korea

As human activities influence land cover changes, the environment on human life such as water quality, has been impacted. In particular, huge constructions or reclamation projects are responsible for dramatic land cover changes. The Saemangeum area in South Korea has been one of the largest reclamation projects to progress nearly in two decades. In this study, Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper and Landsat-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus images were used to classify land cover types in the Saemangeum area. A change detection method was utilized to determine the impacts of the reclamation project. While wetland, grassland, and urban areas were increased, forest, water, and agricultural areas were decreased during the reclamation progress. Water quality analysis related to the land cover changes was conducted to determine the influence of reclamation construction on the environment. Chemical oxygen demand and suspended sediment variability were significantly impacted by the sea current changes after the dyke construction. On the contrary, water temperature and dissolved oxygen were affected by the seasonal influences rather than the reclamation construction. Total nitrogen and total phosphorus were influenced by the fertilizers and pesticides as a result of agricultural activity. The trends of suspended sediment from Landsat images were similar with those from the ground observation sites and also impacted by the dyke construction.     

Assessing implications of land use and land cover changes in forest ecosystems of NE Turkey

Monitoring land use and land cover change (LUCC) and understanding forest cover dynamics is extremely important in sustainable development and management of forest ecosystems. This study analyzed the spatial and temporal pattern of LUCC in the Yaln?zçam and U?urlu forest planning units which are located in the northeast corner of Turkey. The investigation also evaluates the temporal changes of the spatial structure of forest conditions through the spatial analysis of forest-cover type maps from 1972 and 2005 using geographical information systems and FRAGSTATS^TM. As an overall change between 1972 and 2005, there was a net increase of 1,823 ha in forested areas, and cumulative forest improvement accounted for 2.06 %. In terms of spatial configuration, the landscape structure in the study area changed substantially over the 33-year study period, resulting in fragmentation of the landscape as indicated by large patch numbers and smaller mean patch sizes, owing to heavy grazing, illegal cutting, and uncontrolled stand treatments.     

Determining land use changes by radar-optic fused images and monitoring its environmental impacts in Edremit region of western Turkey

Rapid and unplanned urbanization and industrialization are the main reasons of environmental problems. If urban growth is not based on resource sustainability criteria and urban plans are not applied, natural and human resources are damaged dramatically. In this study, land use change and urban expansion in Edremit region of Turkey is determined by means of remote sensing techniques between 1971 and 2002. To improve the accuracy of land use/cover maps, the contribution of SAR images to optic images in defining land cover types was investigated. To determine the situation of land use/cover types in 2002 accurately, Landsat-5 images and Radarsat-1 images were fused, and the land use/cover types were defined from the fused images. Comparisons with the ground truth reveal that land use maps generated using the fuse technique are improved about 6% with an accuracy of 81.20%. To define land use types and urban expansion, screen digitizing and classification methods were used. The results of the study indicate that the urban areas have been increased 1,826 ha across the agricultural fields which are in land use capability classes of I and II, and significant environmental changes such as land degradation and degeneration of ground water quality occurred.     

Land use and land cover (LULC) of the Republic of the Maldives: first national map and LULC change analysis using remote-sensing data

The Maldives islands in recent decades have experienced dramatic land-use change. Uninhabited islands were turned into new resort islands; evergreen tropical forests were cut, to be replaced by fields and new built-up areas. All these changes happened without a proper monitoring and urban planning strategy from the Maldivian government due to the lack of national land-use and land-cover (LULC) data. This study aimed to realize the first land-use map of the entire Maldives archipelago and to detect land-use and land-cover change (LULCC) using high-resolution satellite images and socioeconomic data. Due to the peculiar geographic and environmental features of the archipelago, the land-use map was obtained by visual interpretation and manual digitization of land-use patches. The images used, dated 2011, were obtained from Digital Globe’s WorldView 1 and WorldView 2 satellites. Nine land-use classes and 18 subclasses were identified and mapped. During a field survey, ground control points were collected to test the geographic and thematic accuracy of the land-use map. The final product’s overall accuracy was 85%. Once the accuracy of the map had been checked, LULCC maps were created using images from the early 2000s derived from Google Earth historical imagery. Post-classification comparison of the classified maps showed that growth of built-up and agricultural areas resulted in decreases in forest land and shrubland. The LULCC maps also revealed an increase in land reclamation inside lagoons near inhabited islands, resulting in environmental impacts on fragile reef habitat. The LULC map of the Republic of the Maldives produced in this study can be used by government authorities to make sustainable land-use planning decisions and to provide better management of land use and land cover.     

Morphometry and land cover based multi-criteria analysis for assessing the soil erosion susceptibility of the western Himalayan watershed

Complex mountainous environments such as Himalayas are highly susceptibility to natural hazards particular those that are triggered by the action of water such as floods, soil erosion, mass movements and siltation of the hydro-electric power dams. Among all the natural hazards, soil erosion is the most implicit and the devastating hazard affecting the life and property of the millions of people living in these regions. Hence to review and devise strategies to reduce the adverse impacts of soil erosion is of utmost importance to the planners of watershed management programs in these regions. This paper demonstrates the use of satellite based remote sensing data coupled with the observational field data in a multi-criteria analytical (MCA) framework to estimate the soil erosion susceptibility of the sub-watersheds of the Rembiara basin falling in the western Himalaya, using geographical information system (GIS). In this paper, watershed morphometry and land cover are used as an inputs to the MCA framework to prioritize the sub-watersheds of this basin on the basis of their different susceptibilities to soil erosion. Methodology included the derivation of a set of drainage and land cover parameters that act as the indicators of erosion susceptibility. Further the output from the MCA resulted in the categorization of the sub-watersheds into low, medium, high and very high erosion susceptibility classes. A detailed prioritization map for the susceptible sub-watersheds based on the combined role of land cover and morphometry is finally presented. Besides, maps identifying the susceptible sub-watersheds based on morphometry and land cover only are also presented. The results of this study are part of the watershed management program in the study area and are directed to instigate appropriate measures to alleviate the soil erosion in the study area.     

Land use/land cover change and their effects on landscape patterns in the Yanqi Basin, Xinjiang (China)

Human modification of land use and land cover change (LUCC) drives the change of landscape patterns and limits the availability of products and services for human and livestock. LUCC can undermine environmental health. Thus, this study aimed to develop an understanding of LUCC in the Yanqi Basin, Xinjiang, China, an arid area experiencing dramatic water and land resource use. A time series of satellite images (1964, 1973, 1989, 1999, and 2009) were used to calculate the index of landscape patterns to study the processes involved in changes to land uses and landscape patterns and the influence of this changes on landscape patterns. The results show that land uses in the Yanqi Basin have changed dramatically since 1964 with grassland being mainly converted to cropland. Landscape fragmentation and diversity have decreased in the study area, although landscape fragmentation increased from 1964 to 1999 and then decreased by 2009. The index of landscape diversity decreased from 1.64 in 1964 to 0.71 in 2009. The heterogeneity and complexity of the landscape increased during this period. In contrast, the index of dominance decreased from 0.85 in 1964 to 0.83 in 2009. Land use change drives landscape patterns of the development of the watershed toward diversity and a fragmented structure. Population growth, economic development, and industrial policies were the dominant driving forces behind LUCC in the Yanqi Basin. Sustainable use of land resources is a significant factor in maintaining economic development and environmental protection in this arid inland river basin.     

Trends in land use and land cover change in the protected and communal areas of the Zambezi Region,Namibia

Land management decisions have extensively modified land use and land cover in the Zambezi Region. These decisions are influenced by land tenure classifications, legislation, and livelihoods. Land use and land cover change is an important indicator for quantifying the effectiveness of different land management strategies. However, there has been no evidence on whether protected or communal land tenure is more affected by land use and land cover changes in southern Africa and particularly Namibia. Our study attempted to fill this gap by analyzing the relationship between land use and land cover change and land tenure regimes stratified according to protected and communal area in the Zambezi Region. Multi-temporal Landsat TM and ETM+ imagery were used to determine the temporal dynamics of land use and land cover change from 1984 to 2010. The landscape showed distinctive modifications over the study period; broad trends include the increase in forest land after 1991. However, changes were not uniform across the study areas. Two landscape development stages were deduced: (1) 1984–1991 represented high deforestation and gradual increase in shrub land; (2) 1991–2000 and 2000–2010 represented lower deforestation and slower agropastoral expansion. The results further show clear patterns of the dynamics, magnitude, and direction of land use and land cover change by tenure regime. The study concluded that land tenure has a direct impact on land use and land cover, since it may restrict some activities carried out on the land in the Zambezi Region.     

Water quality time series for Big Melen stream (Turkey): its decomposition analysis and comparison to upstream

Big Melen stream is one of the major water resources providing 268 km³ year^???1 of drinking and municipal water for Istanbul. Monthly time series data between 1991 and 2004 for 25 chemical, biological, and physical water properties of Big Melen stream were separated into linear trend, seasonality, and error components using additive decomposition models. Water quality index (WQI) derived from 17 water quality variables were used to compare Aksu upstream and Big Melen downstream water quality. Twenty-six additive decomposition models of water quality time series data including WQI had R ² values ranging from 88% for log(water temperature) (P?≤?0.001) to 3% for log(total dissolved solids) (P?≤?0.026). Linear trend models revealed that total hardness, calcium concentration, and log(nitrite concentration) had the highest rate of increase over time. Tukey’s multiple comparison pointed to significant decreases in 17 water quality variables including WQI of Big Melen downstream relative to those of Aksu upstream (P?≤?0.001). Monitoring changes in water quality on the basis of watersheds through WQI and decomposition analysis of time series data paves the way for an adaptive management process of water resources that can be tailored in response to effectiveness and dynamics of management practices.     

Spatial and temporal analysis of land cover changes and water quality in the Lake Issaqueena watershed,South Carolina

Monitoring changes in land cover and the subsequent environmental responses are essential for water quality assessment, natural resource planning, management, and policies. Over the last 75 years, the Lake Issaqueena watershed has experienced a drastic shift in land use. This study was conducted to examine the changes in land cover and the implied changes in land use that have occurred and their environmental, water quality impacts. Aerial photography of the watershed (1951, 1956, 1968, 1977, 1989, 1999, 2005, 2006, and 2009) was analyzed and classified using the geographic information system (GIS) software. Seven land cover classes were defined: evergreen, deciduous, bare ground, pasture/grassland, cultivated, and residential/other development. Water quality data, including sampling depth, water temperature, dissolved oxygen content, fecal coliform levels, inorganic nitrogen concentrations, and turbidity, were obtained from the South Carolina (SC) Department of Health and Environmental Control (SCDHEC) for two stations and analyzed for trends as they relate to land cover change. From 1951 to 2009, the watershed experienced an increase of tree cover and bare ground (+17.4 % evergreen, +62.3 % deciduous, +9.8 % bare ground) and a decrease of pasture/grassland and cultivated land (?42.6 % pasture/grassland and ?57.1 % cultivated). From 2005 to 2009, there was an increase of 21.5 % in residential/other development. Sampling depth ranged from 0.1 to 0.3 m. Water temperature fluctuated corresponding to changing air temperatures, and dissolved oxygen content fluctuated as a factor of water temperature. Inorganic nitrogen content was higher from December to April possibly due to application of fertilizers prior to the growing season. Turbidity and fecal coliform bacteria levels remained relatively the same from 1962 to 2005, but a slight decline in pH can be observed at both stations. Prior to 1938, the area consisted of single-crop cotton farms; after 1938, the farms were abandoned, leaving large bare areas with highly eroded soil. Starting in 1938, Clemson reforested almost 30 % of the watershed. Currently, three fourths of the watershed is forestland, with a limited coverage of small farms and residential developments. Monitoring water quality is essential in maintaining adequate freshwater supply. Water quality monitoring focuses mainly on the collection of field data, but current water quality conditions depend on the cumulative impacts of land cover change over time.     

Determination of organochlorine pesticide concentrations in flathead mullet (Mugil cephalus) caught from the western Black Sea coast of Turkey

The objective of this study was to determine the levels of 14 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in flathead mullet (Mugil cephalus) caught from the western Black Sea coast of Turkey. The fish samples were caught from five different locations of the western Black Sea coast of Turkey in August 2009. Organochlorine pesticides were extracted from the liver tissues, and then the levels of OCPs were measured using gas chromatography with an electron capture detector. Organochlorine pesticides were detected in all locations. The levels of total OCPs in fish samples ranged between 0.224 and 1.103 μg g^?1 dry weight in the western Black Sea coast of Turkey. DDT, beta-HCH, and endosulfan I were the dominant OCPs in the fish samples. The levels of DDT in fish samples ranged between 0.081 and 0.186 μg g^?1 dry weight. The levels of total HCH in fish samples ranged between 0.007 and 0.376 μg g^?1 dry weight in the western Black Sea coast of Turkey. Although the usage of OCPs was banned in Turkey, the results of this study clearly indicated the presence of OCPs in the western Black Sea coast of Turkey and exposure of living organisms to these chemicals.     

Throughfall,stemflow, and interception characteristics of coniferous forest ecosystems in the western black sea region of Turkey (Daday example)

This study aims to identify precipitation, throughfall, stemflow, precipitation, and interception processes in pure black pine, pure Scots pine, and mixed black pine–Scots pine forest ecosystems and present the precipitation partitioning according to different stand types. Throughfall and stemflow measurements were performed using five standard precipitation gauges in a pilot area established to represent pure black pine, pure Scots pine, and mixed black pine–Scots pine stands in the Bezirgan Basin. The total precipitation was measured in an open field close to the study area. Throughfall values were calculated as the percentage of precipitation measured in an open field. According to the results of the study, the throughfall values were 69.8% in black pine, 73.9% in Scots pine, and 77.7% in the mixed black pine–Scots pine stands; the stemflow values were 2.6% in black pine, 5.9% in Scots pine, and 3.1% in the mixed black pine–Scots pine stands; the amounts of precipitation reaching the forest floor were 72.3% in black pine, 79.8% in Scots pine, and 80.7% in the mixed black pine–Scots pine stands; and the interception values were found to be 27.7% in black pine, 20.2% in Scots pine, and 19.2% in the mixed black pine–Scots pine stands.     

Application of remote sensing data and GIS for landslide risk assessment as an environmental threat to Izmir city (west Turkey)

In this study, landslide risk assessment for Izmir city (west Turkey) was carried out, and the environmental effects of landslides on further urban development were evaluated using geographical information systems and remote sensing techniques. For this purpose, two different data groups, namely conditioning and triggering data, were produced. With the help of conditioning data such as lithology, slope gradient, slope aspect, distance from roads, distance from faults and distance from drainage lines, a landslide susceptibility model was constructed by using logistic regression modelling approach. The accuracy assessment of the susceptibility map was carried out by the area under curvature (AUC) approach, and a 0.810 AUC value was obtained. This value shows that the map obtained is successful. Due to the fact that the study area is located in an active seismic region, earthquake data were considered as primary triggering factor contributing to landslide occurrence. In addition to this, precipitation data were also taken into account as a secondary triggering factor. Considering the susceptibility data and triggering factors, a landslide hazard index was obtained. Furthermore, using the Aster data, a land-cover map was produced with an overall kappa value of 0.94. From this map, settlement areas were extracted, and these extracted data were assessed as elements at risk in the study area. Next, a vulnerability index was created by using these data. Finally, the hazard index and the vulnerability index were combined, and a landslide risk map for Izmir city was obtained. Based on this final risk map, it was observed that especially south and north parts of the Izmir Bay, where urbanization is dense, are threatened to future landsliding. This result can be used for preliminary land use planning by local governmental authorities.     

Monitoring the local distribution of striped hyenas (Hyaena hyaena L.) in the Eastern Mediterranean Region of Turkey (Hatay) by using GIS and remote sensing technologies

Striped hyenas (Hyaena hyaena L.) are one of the large carnivores whose numbers have rapidly decreased in Turkey. To monitor and assess the distribution of striped hyenas in Mediterranean region of Turkey, geographical information systems (GIS) and remote sensing technologies were implemented. For this purpose, the GIS database was generated and digital maps were produced in ArcGIS 9.2 program, considering some of the main factors including signs of striped hyenas, elevation, slope, land use types, feeding sources, and road network. The land use types in the distribution area of striped hyenas were classified by using ERDAS Imagine program. The results from the land use classification indicated that the signs of striped hyenas mostly distributed over the agricultural areas especially with olive groves, and followed by maquis. It was found that there was a spatial relationship between the signs of striped hyenas and feeding sources such as organic waste centers and a chicken farm in the region.