Promoting energy efficiency financing and ESCOs in developing countries: mechanisms and barriers

Developing countries have tremendous potential to increase energy efficiency but face several barriers before the potential can be realised. A lack of access to appropriate financing mechanisms is one of the important barriers. Energy service companies (ESCOs), a market oriented mechanism to improve energy efficiency, had successful experiences in developed countries such as the USA and Canada, and developing countries such as South Korea. ESCOs are in nascent stage in many developing countries and face several barriers that include market, finance and institutional barriers, poor energy pricing policies, high transaction costs etc. Market development through active involvement of governments as a customer, information provider, and policy maker is required to promote ESCOs. Development of specialised energy efficiency financing windows in appropriate financial institutions, development of skills for energy efficiency project appraisal and design of specialised financial products are other measures to accelerate the diffusion of energy efficiency.     

Towards an efficient and low carbon economy post-2012: opportunities and barriers for foreign companies in the Russian energy market

Russia is one of the most energy- and carbon-intensive countries in the world. The high level of technical abrasion and a low level of investments into modernization of the Russian energy industry cause huge energy wastage and carbon emissions. This situation is regarded by countries relying on energy imports from Russia as an increasing threat to security of supply and as a major barrier to global climate change policy. This paper provides an overview of the current and future Russian energy efficiency and greenhouse gas mitigation policies. The focus is laid on the detailed investigation of the progress and future potential of the market-oriented mechanisms Joint Implementation (JI) and Green Investment Scheme (GIS), being considered as two possible channels for FDI in transnational energy efficiency and carbon mitigation projects. The analysis was conducted by reviewing the relevant scientific and non-scientific literature including a variety of theoretical and practice-oriented arguments. Based on this assessment, we conclude that JI and GIS are confronted with numerous barriers in the Russian energy market. We further scrutinize the ability of Energy Service Companies (ESCOs), as one of the market intermediary models, to overcome some of these barriers in the process of effectively integrating JI and GIS in their long-term business strategies. Due to the compatibility of the main features of JI and GIS with the working procedures under the ESCO model we conclude that numerous synergy effects can be generated and that the majority of transaction barriers specific for the Russian energy market can be overcome. Such an integrative framework for international energy efficiency and carbon mitigation projects would contribute to the modernization of the Russian energy industry and enable a “win-win” situation for foreign companies seeking to invest in a sustainable manner.     

再生资源产业发展中市场机制的缺陷和对策

再生资源市场发展是再生资源产业发展的关键,但再生资源市场机制存在着一些缺陷,这些缺陷制约着再生资源市场的发展。政府应当针对再生资源市场的缺陷采取一定的对策,发挥杠杆作用,提高市场效率,但不应当支配市场主体的行为。政策的影响往往不会与政策设计的预期完全一致,在干预市场时依据一定的原则可以最大程度地减少不利影响,提高政策的积极作用。     

Bio-energy policies in a global context

Against the background of an increasing global demand for bio-energy, the need for sustainability standards and a certification system ensuring sustainable production and trade has grown rapidly. Nevertheless, there is currently no specific forum for discussions on how to deal with biomass trade at the multilateral level. Distortions in agricultural and energy trade regimes, the myriad of standards and the lack of a clear biomass classification in the multilateral trade regime suggest that bio-energy products may not deliver sustainable development gains for all trading partners. This paper analyses then the global impact of bio-energy policies on biomass production and trade, paying particular attention to sustainable development in the bio-energy sector. It examines how a possible reduction and elimination of trade barriers as well as a phasing out of trade distorting support measures would contribute to the development of a global sustainable bio-energy market.     

Towards mitigation of greenhouse gases by small changes in farming practices: understanding local barriers in Spain

Small changes in agricultural practices have a large potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, the implementation of such practices at the local level is often limited by a range of barriers. Understanding the barriers is essential for defining effective measures, the actual mitigation potential of the measures, and the policy needs to ensure implementation. Here we evaluate behavioural, cultural, and policy barriers for implementation of mitigation practices at the local level that imply small changes to farmers. The choice of potential mitigation practices relevant to the case study is based on a literature review of previous empirical studies. Two methods that include the stakeholders’ involvement (experts and farmers) are undertaken for the prioritization of these potential practices: (a) Multi-criteria analysis (MCA) of the choices of an expert panel and (b) Analysis of barriers to implementation based on a survey of farmers. The MCA considers two future climate scenarios – current climate and a drier and warmer climate scenario. Results suggest that all potential selected practices are suitable for mitigation considering multiple criteria in both scenarios. Nevertheless, if all the barriers for implementation had the same influence, the preferred mitigation practices in the case study would be changes in fertilization management and use of cover crops. The identification of barriers for the implementation of the practices is based on the econometric analysis of surveys given to farmers. Results show that farmers’ environmental concerns, financial incentives and access to technical advice are the main factors that define their barriers to implementation. These results may contribute to develop effective mitigation policy to be included in the 2020 review of the European Union Common Agricultural Policy.     

An evaluation of adaptation options for climate change impacts on agriculture in Kazakhstan

Agriculture in Kazakhstan is sensitive to climate, and wheat yields could be reduced up to 70% under climate change. With the transition from a socialist economy to a free market economy, decisions are being made now that will affect Kazakhstan's ability to cope with climate change. A team of Kazakh and American researchers examined the cost-effectiveness and barriers to implementations of adaptation options for climate change. Twelve adaptation options that increase flexibility to respond to climate change were identified using a screening matrix. Four options, forecasting pest outbreaks, developing regional centers for preserving genetic diversity of seeds, supporting a transition to a free market, and reducing soil erosion through the use of changed farming practices, were examined. The Adaptation Decision Matrix (ADM) was then applied to estimate benefits using expert judgment (using an arbitrary numerical scale, not monetary values) and benefits estimates were compared to costs to determine cost-effectiveness. The ADM uses subjective measures of how well adaptation options meet policy objectives. Controlling soil erosion was estimated to have the highest benefits, but the high costs of implementation appears to make it relatively cost-ineffective. Supporting a transition to a free market was ranked as the most cost-effective measure, with regional centers second. However, use of different scales to quantify benefits or different weights can result in regional centers being more cost-effective than the transition to a free market. Regional centers was also judged to have fewer barriers to implementation than a transition to a free market. These results will be incorporated in Kazakhstan's National Action Plan. The ADM and other tools are relatively easy to apply, but are quite subjective and difficult to evaluate. The tools can be quite useful by decision makers to analyze advantages and disadvantages between different adaptation options, but should be supplemented with additional, particularly quantitative analysis.     

Barriers to the implementation of cleaner production in Chinese SMEs: government,industry and expert stakeholders' perspectives

This paper applies an analytic hierarchy process (AHP) to examine and prioritize underlying barriers to adoption of cleaner production (CP) by small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in China from the perspectives of government, industry and expert stakeholder groups. First, on the basis of the findings of previous research and literature review, 20 barriers are identified and grouped into four categories: (1) policy and market barriers; (2) financial and economic barriers; (3) technical and information barriers; and (4) managerial and organizational barriers. Second, an AHP model is developed and a survey questionnaire was designed, tested, and refined. Third, the questionnaire was distributed to the representatives of three stakeholders of CP, i.e. enterprise managers, government officials, and experts. The returned questionnaires were validated in terms of consistency and in some cases followed up for verification. Fourth, the 20 barriers were rated by analyzing the valid questionnaires through the AHP model. The top three barriers to CP adoption by Chinese SMEs were found to be: (a) lack of economic incentive policies; (b) lax environmental enforcement, and (c) high initial capital cost. The researches conclude that current governmental policy should give higher priority to lessening those external policy and financial barriers rather than internal technical and managerial barriers. The findings shed some new light on readjusting public policy in order to help to facilitate widespread CP implementation in SMEs in China.     

江苏内河船舶防污现状与对策研究

在研究分析江苏省船舶运输现状和特点、内河船舶污染现状和存在问题的基础上，提出了江苏省内河船舶防污措施及政策建议。     

Multilevel climate policy: the case of the European Union,Finland and Helsinki

Mitigation of climate change requires action at all the different levels, from the international to the national and the local levels. This contribution presents a case study of the city of Helsinki in Finland. An ex-post approach is used to follow the implementation of the EU directives to the national and further to the city level and to identify the relevant voluntary action taken in the city. We find that the coherence of national and city level policies is the highest in regulated areas, such as waste management and building regulation. Voluntary action is easily taken at local level in areas where co-benefits can be expected: e.g. energy conservation and biofuels for transportation. These voluntary actions can show the feasibility of certain measures which can later on be implemented at national or supranational level. We observe a clear contradiction between the EU and national renewable electricity targets and the nonaction at the city level: local conditions and private interests pose barriers to the implementation of a climate policy. We conclude that the coherence between policies at different levels develops over time and international requirements as well as local conditions can be drivers for it. Cities in particular play a role in mitigating climate change through removing barriers for the implementation of national and EU policies, and through moving forward with and promoting innovative voluntary measures, e.g. through international city networks.     

Regulatory and Mixed Policy Options for Reducing Energy Use and Carbon Emissions

This article discusses non-fiscal policy options to reduce energy demand and the resulting environmental impacts, and it reviews experiences with these options to date. Such policies include accelerating technology development and demonstration, stimulating product demand via procurement policies, applying efficiency standards to information-poor end-use sectors, and encouraging utility energy-efficiency programs. Efforts to implement such measures are underway in several industrialised countries and have begun in developing countries. Increasing energy efficiency is an important area for near-term carbon emission reductions, and a key strategy for cost-effective mitigation of global climate change. However, little of the energy-efficiency potential identified by technical studies will be realised in the absence of policies to reduce barriers to energy-efficiency investments. Performance standards can overcome the lack of information on the part of energy users, while technology procurement helps overcome the view of manufacturers that introducing efficient products is risky. The effects of these policy options on product markets are characterised, showing the synergy between different instruments and their potential to create and transform markets for energy-efficient products, systems and services. The existence of such energy-efficiency markets can stimulate new progress and innovation, providing the conditions in which the continuous process of technical improvement is significantly accelerated. Most policy analysis and discussions regarding climate-change mitigation have centred on various forms of carbon emission taxes and to some extent on tradable emission offsets or permits. This article concludes with an examination of why non-fiscal options are mostly absent from energy-economic models and climate-change policy studies, and we suggest approaches to include them more fully in energy-policy analysis and implementation.     

Policy and technological constraints to implementation of greenhouse gas mitigation options in agriculture

A recent assessment of agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has demonstrated significant potential for mitigation, but suggests that the full mitigation will not be realized due to significant barriers to implementation. In this paper, we explore the constraints and barriers to implementation important for GHG mitigation in agriculture. We also examine how climate and non-climate policy in different regions of the world has affected agricultural GHG emissions in the recent past, and how it may affect emissions and mitigation implementation in the future. We examine the links between mitigation and adaptation and drives for sustainable development and the potential for agricultural GHG mitigation in the future.We describe how some countries have initiated climate and non-climate policies believed to have direct effects or synergistic effects on mitigating GHG emissions from agriculture. Global sharing of innovative technologies for efficient use of land resources and agricultural chemicals, to eliminate poverty and malnutrition, will significantly mitigate GHG emissions from agriculture.Previous studies have shown that as less than 30% of the total biophysical potential for agricultural GHG mitigation might be achieved by 2030, due to price- and non-price-related barriers to implementation. The challenge for successful agricultural GHG mitigation will be to remove these barriers by implementing creative policies. Identifying policies that provide benefits for climate, as well as for aspects of economic, social and environmental sustainability, will be critical for ensuring that effective GHG mitigation options are widely implemented in the future.     

现阶段我国耕地利用集约度变化及其政策启示

近年来,随着社会经济的快速发展和市场经济的不断完善,我国耕地利用中,农户利益最大化的个体追求逐步由耕地产出最大化向劳动力效益最大化方向发展,粮食生产对于农户的重要性在下降,导致我国粮食生产中耕地、资本和劳动力投入在1998年后出现下降趋势,北京、天津、上海、浙江、福建、江西、湖北、广东等省(市)区甚至出现耕地利用集约度总体下降的情况。耕地利用集约度的这一变化对我国粮食安全将产生深远的影响。文章在分析上述情况后认为,为实现我国粮食安全的国家目标,需要在耕地保护政策的基础上,进一步采取政策措施提高粮食生产的规模效益,以缓解粮食安全的国家目标与个体利益最大化的农户目标之间的冲突。     

牡丹江市环境治理第三方运营对策研究

近年来,牡丹江市在城市污水和污染源在线监控两个方面引入第三方运营,取得了一定成效.从环境污染第三方治理实践来看,牡丹江市污染第三方治理存在费用补贴渠道需要完善、污染治理领域亟待拓展、相应扶持政策亟待完善等问题.在分析问题的基础上,提出了扩大污水市场化运营范围、引入多方参与环境治理第三方运营、建立完善相应的政策措施等对策,吸引社会资本投入环境治理,立足现有条件,扩大推广范围,从而引导牡丹江市环境治理第三方运营.     

Mitigation of CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> emissions from the road passenger transport sector in Bahrain

There is much optimism that the 2015 Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention will yield an agreement on mitigation of climate change, to become effective in 2020. In this context, Bahrain represents a developing country with insufficient data to assess mitigation opportunities: its per capita carbon emissions rank among the world’s highest, yet there has been no research on the reduction potential of its rapidly growing transport sector. We examine this reduction potential and the costs of various mitigation measures and, further, explore barriers and the view of policymakers and experts. Potential benefits of combined mitigation scenarios are also identified based on their acceptability. We adopt a modified participatory method to develop the scenarios, using the long-range energy alternative planning (LEAP) modelling system, and find that an integrated policy approach can deliver a 23 % reduction in carbon dioxide emissions, costing 108 United States dollars per avoided metric tonne, with politically acceptable scenarios. Better performance, however, would require less acceptable approaches. These findings are significant for decision-making in Bahrain and other Gulf Cooperation Council countries; national target preparation and the setting of fuel economy standards should be begun promptly. We offer lessons to other developing countries on the timely regulation of technical specifications and numbers of passenger vehicles. Participatory approaches to the assessment of mitigation measures can advance environmentally effective, economically feasible and politically acceptable scenarios. The global community can use these results to provide necessary technical and financial assistance to developing countries.     

可持续发展战略与环境成本内部化

环境成本内部化是实现可持续发展的重要手段。本文从环境经济学的角度出发,分析了可持续发展思想的产生争论背景、可持续发展与传统发展模式的差异以及现行国民经济核算体系的严重缺陷。在此基础上,根据经济过渡期和市场经济的特点和要求,提出了实现可持续发展战略的宏观、中观和微观的环境成本内部化政策和措施。      

宏观经济政策对资源环境保护的十大影响

从经济与环境关系的角度出发,探讨了国家宏观经济政策对环境的作用效应及其复杂性.结合大量实例,分析了价格、产业模式、贸易自由化、利率、贴现率、产权、补贴、投资导向、税收、就业及工资等宏观政策对资源环境保护的影响机制.结果表明:①旨在稳定生产与消费、调节市场和提高社会分配有效性的宏观经济政策,如资源价格、补贴等,由于人们对其缺乏系统的认识或对政策实施带来的后果预计不足,往往在短期内缓解经济矛盾的同时又产生了对资源环境保护的负作用;②旨在保持宏观经济大局稳定的调控手段如利率、贴现率等对于实现可持续发展是十分必要的,但由于私人与政府均存在短视的社会时间偏好等原因,也可能会对资源环境产生不利影响;③一些对经济增长和收入分配都会产生重要影响的宏观经济政策,如贸易自由化、投资导向、就业与工资政策、税收政策等,分别在不同程度上、直接或间接地影响着资源环境的利用与保护.因此应在综合分析基础上,结合中国实际,将环境考虑有效地纳入宏观经济决策体系,以促进中国下一步环境与经济的协调发展,并提出了一系列政策建议.      

The vulnerability context of a savanna area in Mozambique: household drought coping strategies and responses to economic change

In this paper, we investigate the ways in which climate stressors and economic changes related to liberalisation alter the local vulnerability context. Household and key informant data from two villages in Mozambique are analysed. First, we explore how changes such as increased market integration, altered systems of agricultural support, land tenure change and privatisation of agro-industries may affect factors important for response capacity, including access to local natural resources, employment opportunities, and household labour and capital. Next, we investigate how people related to the market while coping with the 2002–2003 drought. The study reveals that there had been an increase in informal trade and casual employment opportunities; however, market relations were very unfavourable and as the drought intensified, smallholders were locked into activities that barely secured economic survival and which sometimes endangered long-term response capacity. Only a few large-scale farmers had the capital and skills necessary to negotiate a good market position in urban markets, thus securing future incomes. Inequality, social sustainability, vulnerability and natural resource use are all closely linked in the savannas. Hence, both climate change adaptation policies and sustainability measures need to target vulnerability context and the social and environmental stressors shaping it.     

Promoting energy efficiency financing and ESCOs in developing countries: experiences from Korean ESCO business

Promotion of ESCO business is one way of increasing energy efficiency. However, it has a lot of barriers and challenges to be successful. The Korean case is a good example to show the reason why economically viable energy savings measures cannot be implemented and how this can be corrected. Although financing is essential for promoting energy efficiency investment and ESCO business, it is not the most crucial barrier to overcome. Along with a financial barrier, an institutional barrier should also be lifted for energy efficiency investment. In this regard, the role of government as a market creator as well as a rule setter through removing barriers and mobilizing necessary capital needs to be emphasized.     

Can we meet targets for biofuels and renewable energy in transport given the constraints imposed by policy in agriculture and energy?

The deployment of biofuels is significantly affected by policy in energy and agriculture. In the energy arena, concerns regarding the sustainability of biofuel systems and their impact on food prices led to a set of sustainability criteria in EU Directive 2009/28/EC on Renewable Energy. In addition, the 10% biofuels target by 2020 was replaced with a 10% renewable energy in transport target. This allows the share of renewable electricity used by electric vehicles to contribute to the mix in achieving the 2020 target. Furthermore, only biofuel systems that effect a 60% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2020 compared with the fuel they replace are allowed to contribute to meeting the target. In the agricultural arena, cross-compliance (which is part of EU Common Agricultural Policy) dictates the allowable ratio of grassland to total agricultural land, and has a significant impact on which biofuels may be supported. This paper outlines the impact of these policy areas and their implications for the production and use of biofuels in terms of the 2020 target for 10% renewable transport energy, focusing on Ireland. The policies effectively impose constraints on many conventional energy crop biofuels and reinforce the merits of using biomethane, a gaseous biofuel. The analysis shows that Ireland can potentially satisfy 15% of renewable energy in transport by 2020 (allowing for double credit for biofuels from residues and ligno-cellulosic materials, as per Directive 2009/28/EC) through the use of indigenous biofuels: grass biomethane, waste and residue derived biofuels, electric vehicles and rapeseed biodiesel.     

重庆城市餐厨垃圾管理对策的初步研究

餐厨垃圾对环境的污染和人们身心健康的危害日益显现,重庆市对餐厨垃圾的统一管理与处置基本还处于空白状态.本文介绍了国内外餐厨垃圾管理的政策和措施,剖析重庆城市餐厨垃圾污染的现状及原因,进而提出全市餐厨垃圾管理的总体思路,并着重从健全法律法规体系、转变政府管理职能、建立市场化机制及引导公众参与等方面提出了相应的对策建议.