The greenhouse gas intensity of the tourism sector: The case of Switzerland

Greenhouse gas intensity is a ratio comparing the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of an activity or economic sector to the economic value it generates. In recent years, many countries have calculated the GHG intensity of their economic sectors as a basis for policy making. The GHG intensity of tourism, however, has not been determined since tourism is not measured as an economic sector in the national accounts. While for tourism-reliant countries it would be useful to know this quantity, a number of difficulties exist in its determination. In this study, we determine the GHG intensity of tourism's value added in Switzerland by means of a detailed bottom-up approach with the main methodological focus on how to achieve consistent system boundaries. For comparison, we calculate the tourism sector's GHG intensity for selected European countries using a simpler top-down approach. Our results show that the Swiss tourism sector is more than four times more GHG intensive than the Swiss economy on average. Of all tourism's sub-sectors, air transport stands out as the sector with by far largest emissions (80%) and highest GHG intensity. The results for other countries make similar, if not as pronounced, patterns apparent. We discuss the results and possible mitigation options against the background of the goal to prevent dangerous climate change.     

The potential of water markets to allocate water between industry,agriculture, and public water utilities as an adaptation mechanism to climate change

One of the climate change scenarios that have been developed for the Netherlands predicts hotter and drier summers and a substantial drop in river discharge. This might lead to water scarcity with detrimental economic and environmental effects. Among the possible adaptation responses to climate change-induced water scarcity, the re-allocation of water resources among competing uses should also be considered. In this paper, we extend and apply a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model to assess the potential of water markets (water allocation according to its shadow price) to guide the allocation of scarce water across agriculture, manufacturing, and public water supply. We develop four scenarios in which the scope of water markets is increased from industry-specific to economy-wide. The results show that the agricultural sector bears nearly all of the losses from a new water-scarce climate, while the manufacturing sectors are able to mitigate their losses to a large extent by technical measures. Extending the scope of water markets unambiguously increases economic output and results in a re-allocation of water to the manufacturing sector from the agricultural sector and from public water services. If, perhaps for political reasons, public water services are excluded from water trading, water is re-allocated from agriculture to manufacturing. Depending on which sectors are included, the construction of a water market can have negative or positive effects on a sector’s output, and although the implementation of water markets may be positive for overall economic output and can hence assist adaptation, the effect on vulnerable or societally sensitive economic sectors, such as public water, should be taken into account when implementing such a market.     

Quantifying energy use, carbon dioxide emission, and other environmental loads from island tourism based on a life cycle assessment approach

The main purpose of industrial ecology is to evaluate and minimize impacts from economic activities of human society. Tourism as one economic activity, results in a full range of environmental impacts, but few applications of industrial ecology to tourism management have previously been discussed. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is used in this research to explore environmental impacts of island tourism, and then the environmental loads per tourist per trip can be found. Penghu Island in Taiwan is taken as an example to examine this new approach. Various environmental loads in transportation, accommodation, and recreation activity sector are all inventoried and calculated here. In summary, per tourist per trip uses 1606 MJ of energy, 607 L of water, and emits 109,034 g of CO₂, 2660 g of CO, 597 g of HC, 70 g of NO_x. In addition, per tourist per trip also discharges 416 L of wastewater, 83.1 g of BOD, and 1.95 g of solid waste. In terms of energy use, the transportation consumes the largest energy (67%); in particular, the airplane sector. Moreover, per Penghu tourist results in more environmental loads than local people; for example, the amount of solid waste discharge per tourist is 1.95 kg per day, while that of per local people is 1.18 kg. Finally, the advantages and limitations of such LCA approach are also discussed.     

Exploring barriers to climate change adaptation in the Swiss tourism sector

Increasingly, various sectors are affected by climate change and need to find ways to adapt with much public guidance and support. This paper examines the adaptation process of a sector that started it some time ago – Swiss Alpine tourism. It identifies barriers that may be relevant for all sectors, all along the successive phases of the adaptation process. It additionally identifies the barriers which are most important and how these can be overcome. In order to do this we use an online survey directed to Swiss tourism stakeholders. Our results indicate that both economic and social feasibility barriers are important impediments to the adjustment process, whereas the acceptability among inhabitants and the willingness to act of stakeholders appear less critical. These barriers can be overcome and adaptation facilitated with more and especially better information about the regional consequences of climate change and feasible adaptation measures, by some top-down leadership and coordination, and by providing financial support.     

Diffusion and adoption of environmentally sound technology in China cement industry

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Corporate environmental management and regulation of mining operations in the Cyclades,Greece

The mining industry plays an important role in the local economy in many islands of the Cyclades, contributing significantly to overall growth. However, it has simultaneously caused many environmental problems and has had adverse impacts upon other important economic activities, such as tourism. As a result, questions have been raised as to whether mining should be allowed to continue. This paper assesses the mining operations of the Cyclades, examining the corporate environmental management of mining companies and the process of granting permission for mining operations. Specifically, the regulatory and environmental problems of mining operations are assessed, and the process of obtaining a ‘social licence to operate’ is explored. A number of recommendations are made in order to overcome regulatory inefficiencies and promote corporate environmental management in the mining sector of the Cyclades.     

论我国西部大开发战略中的旅游开发与贫困消除

大量调查研究表明,许多地区旅游资源的分布与贫困人口的分布是高度重叠的,尤其是那些区位偏远以及交通不便的地区,自然景观受人类活动干扰较小,自然生态系统保存较为完整,适合开发、发展生态旅游产业。因此,将旅游开发与扶贫有机结合应是消除贫困的最有效途径。论文针对这一问题论述了如下若干问题:其一,我国贫困县的分布与高品位生态旅游资源的分布高度重叠;其二,我国贫困县的分布与这些生态旅游资源的分布均在中西部地区,消除贫困与发展中西部旅游应是西部大开发战略的重要组成部分;其三,旅游在扶贫方面的优势是其他任何产业所无可比拟的;其四,应着手构建中国PPT旅游(ProPoorTourism,即有利于贫困人口发展的旅游)战略以及发展PPT旅游的战略措施,以期尽快消除我国的贫困问题。     

Environmental issues in Nepal and solving them using the cleaner production approach

Owing to rapid industrialisation, environmental problems in sectors such as water, air, waste, energy and forestry in Nepal are reaching a crisis point. Although the Nepalese government has been trying to solve these problems by various means, the main emphasis has been on end-of-pipe solutions. This paper investigates why Nepal needs to implement Cleaner Production concepts as a matter of urgency and provides several recommendations to the government as well as sectors such as waste, industry, energy and pesticide regarding the implementation of such concepts.     

如何促进旅游业与生态环境耦合协调发展研究

对于正处于发展中状态的中国来说,旅游行业是国民经济发展主导性力量之一,并且越来越多旅游资源得到了极大开发利用,为提高当地经济水平起到了奠定性作用。然而基于调查却发现在此期间也存在着一些问题,如部分地区在进行旅游规划设计时过于强调经济效益,明确缺乏生态环境保护意识,再加上资源具有不可再生特点,极容易为生态环境发展带来不利影响,因而这就需要相关人员能够充分引起自身对该方面内容重视程度,促使旅游业与生态环境实现耦合协调发展。     

Analysis of the benefits and challenges of implementing environmental regulatory programmes for mining: Tanzania case study

All mining activities in Tanzania are regulated according to the Mining Act, 1998, and associated regulations. The enactment of the 1998 mining legislation and thus the repeal of the 1979 Act was a result of the overall restructuring of the country's economy. In order to encourage the private sector to take a leading role in economic development, the Government identified priority segments of the economy, which included the mining sector. With the mining sector identified as one of the priority sectors, it was thought imperative to put in place a transparent and competitive legal and regulatory framework, an effective and conducive fiscal regime, and an environmental framework. A new Mining Act, which incorporated the mining legal and regulatory, fiscal and environmental frameworks, was enacted in August 1998. The Act was then equipped with the regulations which provide clear guidance for administration and enforcement.Since the enactment of Tanzania's new mining legislation, the mineral sector has been the fastest growing sector of the economy, which has posed numerous managerial challenges. This paper discusses the benefits of the current environmental legislation and the challenges facing the Government in meeting the demands of a rapidly expanding mining sector. The paper examines the institutional set-up, its capacity to execute tasks (financial, technical, working facilities, etc.), the roles played by related institutions in managing the mining sector, and the interaction between mining and other sectors of the economy.     

基于生产和消费视角的辽宁省行业能源消费碳排放

行业能源消费碳排放核算是碳减排政策制订的基础,从消费视角进行行业碳排放研究日趋重要. 基于经济投入产出生命周期评价模型,从生产和消费视角解析了辽宁省2007年行业能源消费碳排放分布规律. 结果表明:生产视角碳排放量行业集中度高,该视角碳排放总量的78.73%集中在电力、热力的生产和供应业,金属冶炼及压延加工业,非金属矿物制品业以及交通运输、仓储及邮政业;为其他行业提供产品和服务是造成行业生产端碳排放的主要原因;消费视角下行业碳排放总量的53.79%集中在金属冶炼及压延加工业,建筑业,电力、热力的生产和供应业以及其他行业;上游供应行业的间接碳排放是造成消费端排放的主体.从碳排放强度来看,生产视角下各行业碳排放强度差异性较大,电力、热力的生产和供应业的碳排放强度最大,为9.17 t/万元;消费视角下行业之间的碳排放强度差异性较小,均低于3 t/万元. 最后针对不同视角下分析结果的差异性提出了相应对策的侧重点.      

Integrated scenario modelling of energy,greenhouse gas emissions and forestry

Preventing dangerous climate change requires actions on several sectors. Mitigation strategies have focused primarily on energy, because fossil fuels are the main source of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Another important sector recently gaining more attention is the forest sector. Deforestation is responsible for approximately one fifth of the global emissions, while growing forests sequester and store significant amounts of carbon. Because energy and forest sectors and climate change are highly interlinked, their interactions need to be analysed in an integrated framework in order to better understand the consequences of different actions and policies, and find the most effective means to reduce emissions. This paper presents a model, which integrates energy use, forests and greenhouse gas emissions and describes the most important linkages between them. The model is applied for the case of Finland, where integrated analyses are of particular importance due to the abundant forest resources, major forest carbon sink and strong linkage with the energy sector. However, the results and their implications are discussed in a broader perspective. The results demonstrate how full integration of all net emissions into climate policy could increase the economic efficiency of climate change mitigation. Our numerical scenarios showed that enhancing forest carbon sinks would be a more cost-efficient mitigation strategy than using forests for bioenergy production, which would imply a lower sink. However, as forest carbon stock projections involve large uncertainties, their full integration to emission targets can introduce new and notable risks for mitigation strategies.     

Impacts of climatic change on water and natural hazards in the Alps: Can current water governance cope with future challenges? Examples from the European “ACQWA” project

This paper reviews the possible future situation of the Rhone River in the Swiss part of its catchment. Physical processes in the Alps govern the behaviour of the Rhone from its source (Rhone Glacier) to the Lake of Geneva, and substantial changes are expected to occur in the amount and seasonality of precipitation, and in the response of snow and glaciers to a warming climate. As a result, discharge in the alpine part of the Rhone River is likely to undergo an increase in winter and early spring, but strongly decreases from late spring to late autumn. These changes in water regimes will certainly be accompanied by more frequent geomorphic hazards, related to increases in heavy precipitation events and the melting of permanently frozen grounds. The direct and indirect impacts of a warming climate will affect key economic sectors such as tourism, hydropower, and agriculture, while shifts in extreme events will have an impact on the vulnerability of infrastructure and a range of economic sectors and services. Projections of the future course of events can help in advance planning and decision making in order to alleviate some of the more negative consequences of climate and hydrological impacts on key economic sectors in the region. This paper will thus discuss issues related to current and future water governance in the region, whether water-related policies are sufficiently robust today to cope with what may be rapid changes in water availability and water use in coming decades, and to resolve possible rivalries between economic sectors that may be increasingly confronted with problems of water availability at critical times of the year.     

新旅游资源观视角下旅游资源研究框架

旅游资源是旅游活动的基本要素,决定着旅游资源开发利用的综合效益。旅游资源与国家重大战略的关系日益密切,树立新旅游资源观是对区域发展实践的再认识和再实践,能够为旅游资源研究提出新的课题。梳理与总结传统旅游资源观视角下旅游资源研究成果的发展脉络,研究发现：（1）旅游资源研究内容不断丰富,研究方向日益多元,在开展基础研究的同时,积极为服务国家重大战略和区域经济社会发展做出重要贡献,一定程度上实现了“理论指导实践”与“实践完善理论”的良性互动局面。（2）新旅游资源观是指在科学技术进步、价值观念变革、旅游需求提升、人均收入提高等背景下,人们对不同来源、不同结构、不同层次的旅游资源进行整合、配置、重组和优化的动态过程,表现为人们的思维认知对旅游资源性状改变的一种能动响应。新旅游资源观是对传统旅游资源观的根本突破,呈现出新旅游资源价值观、新旅游资源利用观、新旅游资源发展观、新旅游资源效益观和新旅游资源空间观等特征。（3）从旅游资源价值转化、旅游资源可持续利用、旅游资源融合发展、旅游资源区域效益、旅游资源空间重构等方面构建新旅游资源观视角下的“五维一体”的旅游资源研究内容体系,强化旅游资源的跨区域聚合、竞合与融合,揭示跨区域旅游资源开发利用的相互作用机理。（4）面对新旅游资源观视角下旅游资源开发利用过程中出现的新问题和新课题,多学科交叉融合与新方法引进是开展旅游资源开发利用综合性、动态性、区域性和系统性研究的必然趋势。     

基于扎根理论的杭州市梅家坞旅游城市化特征与机制

论文选取杭州市梅家坞村为案例地,通过5次实地调研和访谈获取研究资料,运用扎根理论构建了城市近郊地区旅游城市化特征和发生机制模型。研究表明：梅家坞村旅游城市化过程特征和发生机制可抽象成土地利用变化等11个范畴及31个概念;在旅游发展驱动下,多重要素实现了综合动态变化,在不改变乡村风貌、城乡和谐的条件下,推动了新型城市化进程。论文提出并分析了旅游城市化过程特征和发生机制理论模型,认为“梅家坞现象”是旅游城市化的积极例证,是管窥中国“田园城市”的发展方向与路径。     

基于边际治理成本的环境保护税税率标准探究与政策建议

税负水平是税收调节作用的重要因素,各地区需要科学地制定符合本地区发展水平的环境保护税税率来平衡环境保护与经济发展.基于2016年东北某省14个市的钢铁、电力、化工、水泥行业的排污及治理成本数据,建立污染削减费用函数模型,计算该省大气、水中主要污染物的边际治理成本,并设置不同环境保护税税率的情景方案,以探究环境保护税税率对该省经济发展的影响.结果表明:①SO₂、NO_x、COD、NH₃-N的边际治理成本分别为3.44、5.03、3.81、8.15元/污染当量. ②重点行业主要污染物的边际治理成本不同,钢铁行业主要污染物的边际治理成本较高,其COD、NH₃-N的边际治理成本均高于总体边际治理成本;化工行业的COD边际治理成本高于总体边际治理成本;电力行业的大气主要污染物边际治理成本高于总体边际治理成本;水泥行业的大气主要污染物边际治理成本则相对较低. ③适当提高环境保护税税率对经济发展总体影响不大.研究显示:该省的边际治理成本远高于目前的环境保护税征收标准,若以边际治理成本作为环境保护税税率,不但会增加企业负担,而且会导致不同行业的边际治理成本相差较大,因此,建议提高该省的环境保护税税率标准,即大气污染物征收标准为2.4元/污染当量,水污染物征收标准为2.8元/污染当量,并设置环境保护税税率的行业差异化,将有利于政策功能的发挥.      

重点行业/领域碳达峰成本测算及社会经济影响评估

实现重点行业碳减排需要国家、地方乃至企业投入巨大成本,如何核算重点排放行业和领域资金规模以及选取最为经济有效的碳减排措施,是我国碳达峰路径需要考虑的关键因素. 采用自下而上的降碳技术综合成本评估模型,以我国六大行业(电力、钢铁、水泥、铝冶炼、炼油和石化、煤化工)和两大领域的59项降碳措施为对象,测算了2021—2035年投资成本并模拟了上述投资可能带来的潜在宏观经济影响. 结果表明:①2021—2035年全国重点行业/领域实现碳达峰累计投入成本为34.0×1012元,其中,2030年前碳达峰累计投入成本为20.8×1012元,年均投入2.1×1012元,约占全国年均GDP的1.5%. ②实现2030年前碳达峰预计需对电力行业、重点工业行业、交通领域和建筑领域分别投资10.7×1012、1.3×1012、5.2×1012、3.6×1012元. 铝冶炼行业单位减碳成本最低〔624元/t(以CO₂计)〕,交通领域单位减碳成本最高〔47 869元/t(以CO₂计)〕. ③碳达峰将通过促进新能源产业发展、重点工业行业节能、交通领域绿色升级和绿色基础设施建设等刺激经济高质量增长,2030年前碳达峰投资累计带动GDP增长约26.2×1012元,每年新增就业岗位约677×104个. 研究显示,工业是碳减排经济性最高的领域,交通领域实现碳减排需要付出较大的投资成本,碳达峰投资将有效促进产业绿色低碳转型.      

基于动态CGE的挥发性有机污染物VOCs排放预测和控制研究

从成本效益角度,通过宏观经济手段来控制挥发性有机化合物(VOCs)的研究将对我国改善大气环境有十分积极的作用.在先前研究的基础上,将静态CGE动态化,以2007年为基准年,预测了我国挥发性有机物在当前政策下到2020年的排放量.模拟对排放量高的部分工业部门征收环境税,探讨了其对排放量以及经济系统的影响,为我国挥发性有机物的控制对策提出了建议.结果表明,通过征收税收,可以实现减排VOCs的目的,但经济成本也较大.由于部门经济关联关系,虽未对交通运输业征收VOCs环境税,其影响也较大.因此,在采用宏观经济政策控制VOCs时,需要做好相应的补贴措施.     

Industrial ecology framework for achieving cleaner production in the mining and minerals industry

Industrial ecology (IE) is an emerging framework adopted in the manufacturing, construction, and process industries to provide innovative solutions in strategic planning, leading to cleaner operation and production. An IE framework integrates a large number of processes, economic constraints, and environmental, health and safety considerations for optimized resource utilization. This paper provides a review of environmental management practices in the mining and minerals industry, emphasizing two concepts: IE and cleaner production. The mining and minerals industry provides primary materials for industrial activities; as such, it is an important component in the “industrial ecosystem.” This industry is subject to very stringent social and environmental scrutiny, while providing society with required natural resources to meet essential sustainable development requirements. The implementation of an IE framework in the sector will contribute to sustainable development.     

Sustainable tourism development in the Red Sea of Egypt threats and opportunities

Egypt is looking into the possibilities for diversifying its tourism opportunities throughout the country. The main target for expanding the tourism sector is nature-based tourism. The coral reefs and rich marine life in South Sinai and the Red Sea coast have made these two areas among the premier scuba diving destinations in the world. Many beach resorts are now in operation and there are still hundreds to be constructed. However, previous tourism development in Egypt has resulted in a series of negative environmental impacts. The ambitious development plans to receive 16 million tourists by 2017 should take into consideration sustainability concepts. The government and developers have significant roles to play in adopting and implementing environmentally sound policies and practices to avoid the degradation of the natural heritage of Egypt for the sake of the current as well as future generations.