Assessment of the hazard due to fragment projection: A case study

Fragment projection following vessel burst is a possible cause of domino effects in industrial accidents. The projection of fragments from stationary equipment usually follows the catastrophic rupture of process equipment due to internal pressure exceeding design values. In recent years, a detailed model was developed to assess fragment impact probability. The model, based on the use of fragmentation patterns and of a simplified analysis of fragment trajectory, allows the calculation of impact probabilities considering different scenarios leading to vessel burst and fragment projection. In the present study a case-study was analyzed to assess model performance and to test the credibility of the model predictions for fragment number, shape and impact probability. The cumulative probability of fragment impact was found to be in good agreement with the actual distribution of the landing points experienced for the fragments formed in the accident. The maximum projection distance predicted by the model resulted comparable to the maximum landing distance experienced in the accident. The model tested thus seems to yield significant results, well in the range of those experienced in the case-study analyzed.     

化工储罐间距和体积对爆炸碎片多米诺效应概率的影响

化工储罐爆炸后将产生大量碎片,这些抛射碎片一旦击中相邻罐体容易引发多米诺效应。碎片的抛射方位和抛射距离具有很大的随机性,已有研究多采用概率模型来描述碎片抛射的各分过程。通过总结和发展已有的分过程模型,建立了求取多米诺效应的综合概率模型,并基于蒙特卡罗算法编制了模拟软件,可对化工储罐多米诺效应的发生概率进行预测计算。选取若干常用化工球罐为相邻目标储罐进行实例分析,计算结果表明储罐间距和体积是影响多米诺效应发生概率的两个重要影响因素：随着距离的增大,多米诺效应发生概率不断减小;目标储罐体积越大,多米诺效应发生概率将越大。其中,爆炸碎片对目标储罐的击中概率受上述因素的影响程度更大。该文工作对化工储罐区的安全评价具有一定的参考价值。     

Parametric approach of the domino effect for structural fragments

More specific and accurate probabilistic models of the numbers of fragments generated respectively by Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosions (BLEVEs), Mechanical Explosions (MEs), Confined Explosions (CEs), and Runaway Reactions (RRs) of a horizontal cylindrical vessel were developed using the maximum entropy principle based on historical accident data. The theoretical results from the four probability density functions were compared to the observed data, and the numbers of fragments followed discrete exponential distributions in the interval [1, 9]. Beside the summary of the probabilistic distributions of the other random variables in the process of fragment projection, the effects on the fragment trajectory and target terms were investigated using a parametric approach. The results showed that using the complete model, wind shear, turbulence, and absence of fragment rotation caused the fragments to impact within shorter distances; fragment rotation and lack of wind decreased the probability of impact within a given distance, but the rupture probability of the target was not affected by fragment rotation or wind. The probabilistic confidence intervals of fragment range, impact, and target penetration became narrower with the number of simulation runs, but the accuracy of the results increased. The probability of fragment impact increased with the volume of the target vessel and the degree of filling of the explosion vessel, but did not depend on the kind of explosion. The probability of target rupture increased slowly with the degree of filling of the explosion vessel, but was little influenced by the volume of the target vessel or the kind of explosion.     

Investigation of multiple domino scenarios caused by fragments

A model of multiple domino scenarios and the risk of the domino effect, which is a sequential chain escalating from the primary unit to the last unit, is presented in this paper. The trajectories of fragments from all units, the ground distribution of projectiles, and the risk of the sequential chain of the domino effect were calculated using Monte Carlo simulations. The results showed that the range affected by the fragments from each tank included the other tanks, meaning that fragments from one tank could hit the other tanks and cause multiple accidents, and that the sequential chain of the domino effect could indeed happen. The distributions of ground impacts showed that tank fragments were projected over long distances, up to 1200 m from the source. The spatial distribution of the kinetic energy at ground impact for tank fragments was also obtained. Moreover, the magnitudes of the probabilities of the primary, secondary, third, and fourth accidents in the domino chain were respectively about 10⁻⁷, 10⁻¹¹, 10⁻¹⁵, and 10⁻¹⁹. These results showed that for neighboring domino effect units in the same accident chain, the risk of the most recent domino effect was 10⁴ times that of the following domino effect.     

The analysis of domino effect impact probability triggered by fragments

Explosion fragments are the main cause of domino effect in accidents of the chemical and process industry. A number of significant studies have been conducted to further our understanding of the mutual impact of two major hazard installations (MHIs). This work focused on the development of a new model for the impact probability of domino effect triggered by fragments. Firstly, an expression for the initial projection velocity of fragments was founded by taking the explosion moment as a polytropic process and solving energy transformation equation, then the flight trajectory and velocity were represented by some equations with the flight boundary conditions in flight process under gravity and air friction. With the obtained equations as the objective function, the projection uncertainty was analyzed through sampling of the random variables. Finally, a new systemic model for the impact probability of domino effect is put forward by integrating the flight laws and projection uncertainty of fragments, and the impact probability linear equations with the coefficient matrix of secondary effect were built up in order to calculate the impact probability of domino effect. The study on domino effect impact probability provides some useful insights into the generation mechanism, projection features, flight laws and impacts on targets of the fragments, and also lays a foundation for analysis of domino chain risk caused by explosive fragments in chemical industrial complex.     

基于蒙特卡洛法的储罐爆炸碎片冲击失效模型研究

为定量研究相邻储罐间爆炸碎片冲击的多米诺效应,基于蒙特卡洛方法建立爆炸碎片冲击失效模型。该模型共包括爆炸能量与碎片初始速度、考虑风速及碎片初始位置的碎片三维抛射轨迹、空气阻力、碎片冲击穿透等4个分步模型。基于上述模型,研究储罐爆炸后碎片的初始状态、抛射轨迹以及对相邻储罐的冲击效应。在数值模拟结果的基础上,用储罐最高允许工作压力代替泄放装置的泄压压力来计算爆炸压力,绘制碎片质量及初始速度的直方图,定量分析储罐间距对击中概率的影响。结果表明,热辐射、超压和碎片冲击3种能量作用方式均可能导致储罐间火灾爆炸事故多米诺现象发生,但爆炸碎片冲击导致相邻罐失效的概率较低。     

化学工业重大事故的多米诺效应分析

针对化学工业重大事故多米诺效应的严重后果,进行重大事故多米诺效应发生规律的研究。在指出触发重大事故多米诺效应发生条件和发生模式的基础上,设计重大事故多米诺效应的研究程序。借助生成重大火灾爆炸事故场景和其后果分析方法,建立多米诺效应概率分析的数学模型,利用VB开发了多米诺效应计算软件DOMISOFWARE,解决较为复杂的重大事故多米诺效应概率的计算问题。研究表明,爆炸事故总是较火灾事故具有更高触发多米诺效应的可能性,并且火灾和爆炸触发加压设备发生多米诺效应的概率与常压设备相比随间距增大几乎呈线性下降;确定了爆炸和火灾触发多米诺效应的概率和临界距离。研究结果对于化工装置的安全设计和重大事故的预防控制具有重要的指导意义。     

Analyzing effective factors on leakage-induced hydrogen fires

Currently, novel energy resources are receiving increasing attention as a response to the limitation in fossil fuels as well as their adverse effects on human health. Hydrogen, one of the most abundant elements on the earth, can be regarded as a new energy source to replace fossil fuels. Therefore, safety assessment of the relating processes is very crucial by increasing use of hydrogen as a fuel source. In this regard, consequence analysis for risk assessment and power reduction is very important. The present study aims at modeling hydrogen dispersion along with consequence analyses for such events as jet fire and flash fire. The model was validated by using the data derived from a study on hydrogen leakage in supply pipelines in the laboratory of the University of Pisa. Modeling results reveal that ambient conditions will impose a milder impact on leakage consequences if internal pressure is high in release source. The safe distance was also estimated to be 14 m. Dispersion consequence modeling was performed, followed by the evaluation of the effect of environmental (i.e., stability, ambient temperature, surface roughness, wind speed, and humidity) and process (i.e., vessel temperature and pressure, leakage diameter, and releasing point height) parameters on maximum size flammable vapor cloud and maximum level jet fire radiation on the ground. The size of flammable vapor cloud (consequence dispersion index) and the maximum flux of radiation were affected by process parameters more than ambient parameters. Leakage diameter and the vessel pressure were found to have the highest impact on the operational parameters.     

Estimation of the impact probability in domino effects due to the projection of fragments

Despite the remarkable severity of domino effects in activities at major hazard, a complete methodology analysing such events has not been developed and integrated within Quantitative Risk Analysis (QRA). Such a deficiency appears to be particularly remarkable for domino effects triggered by the projection of fragments. The aim of the present work is therefore to propose a systematic procedure for the quantification of domino effects due to fragments projection within QRA. To achieve this objective, the deterministic approach for the estimation of the realistic trajectory of fragments is entirely reviewed. In order to incorporate such a reviewed approach within the standard QRA, a probabilistic model for the impact probability of the fragments is developed by applying a Monte-Carlo method to the trajectory equations. The validation of the proposed framework is carried out by using the data related to an accident occurred in 1993 in the oil refinery of Milazzo (Italy).     

质子交换膜燃料电池电站多米诺事故概率和风险研究

为探究氢能电站火灾爆炸事故发展规律,采用多米诺效应对电站进行事故概率和风险研究,建立氢能电站多米诺效应定量风险分析模型。基于设备受损概率模型与多米诺理论基础,提出氢能电站多米诺效应概率计算方法,并将方法运用到实际案例,结合SAFETI软件对具体多米诺事故场景进行定量计算。研究结果表明：氢能电站易发生多米诺事故,考虑一级多米诺效应后人员潜在死亡概率增加56%。研究结果可为制定氢能电站安全防控措施以及降低火灾爆炸事故对人员和设备的危害提供依据。     

基于多米诺效应的定量风险评价研究

多米诺效应是引发化工重大事故的主要原因之一.本文综合国内外的研究成果,对火灾热辐射、冲击波超压等造成的多米诺效应进行了深入分析,建立基于多米诺效应的定量风险评价模型,其中包括了评价流程、传播概率、阈值距离计算、多米诺效应对事故频率的影响及后果分析的内容.最后利用Matlab7.1计算平台,以汽油储罐进行实例分析,结果表明该方法是一种适用于多米诺效应定量评价的良好方法,能够比较科学、有效的对危险单元进行风险评价,使重大事故风险评价更切合实际,为政府监管部门和化工企业进行事故的控制和预防提供决策技术.     

基于多米诺效应的油品储罐区个人风险研究

介绍了多米诺效应的基本原理和多米诺事故发生的概率分析方法。提出在一定条件下进行储罐区风险评价时,多米诺效应对个人风险值的影响不容忽视,并给出了考虑多米诺效应的个人风险计算方法。最后利用开发的个人风险计算软件通过分析计算,给出了某储罐区的个人风险等值线分布图。结果表明,该罐区正北方向相邻的一劳动密集型工厂需搬迁,或采取相应安全保护措施降低风险。该方法考虑了多米诺效应对装置事故发生概率的影响,能提高个人风险计算结果的真实性与准确性。     

大型原油储罐火灾多米诺效应概率计算模型及应用

随着油品储罐区规模的不断扩大,近年来多储罐火灾事故呈上升趋势。现有的储罐防火间距是在以往事故经验的基础上设定的,通过罐组内的火灾多米诺效应概率计算,可从风险的角度为罐组内储罐防火间距的设定提供理论依据。通过综合考虑火灾环境下受辐射储罐失效时间和着火储罐火灾得到控制时间,确定了罐组内火灾多米诺效应的判定原则,并在火灾得到控制时间模型和储罐失效时间模型的基础上建立了火灾多米诺效应概率计算模型。以2万立外浮顶原油储罐为例进行模拟计算,得出在现行标准给出的防火间距下,发生罐组火灾多米诺效应的概率为3.94×10-8/a-1,属于可接受风险,为罐组内储罐的合理布局提供了理论依据。     

LPG罐区危险性的研究及分析

目前,绝大多数危险性评价所研究的对象是单一的危险源或危险过程.但是,在日常工业生产中,常常会出现由于初次事故能量的释放而导致的二次甚至多次事故的发生.随着工业生产的大型化,储存量的递增使得多米诺事故发生的可能性也在增加.LPG储罐区正是发生此类事故的危险区域.通过相关模型的运用评价了在LPG储罐区发生火灾爆炸后,相邻危险源发生多米诺事故的可能性,并对安全间距作了着重的分析.     

受限空间爆炸碎片影响分析

受限空间油气泄漏爆炸会产生巨大的能量,爆炸碎片在抛射距离和抛射方位上具有很大随机性,引发的多米诺事故容易对设备和人员造成重大伤害。为了研究爆炸碎片的影响范围及对设备、人员伤害程度,以地下密闭涵道作为研究对象,考虑爆炸能量影响,采用ANSYS Autodyn模拟软件,重点对涵道覆盖物爆炸碎片进行模拟,定量分析了爆炸碎片的影响范围及在影响区域内对设备、人员造成的伤害程度。结果表明:运用Autodyn软件进行仿真,能够更加准确地得出爆炸碎片的抛射情况及影响范围; 在爆炸能量一定的情况下,碎片的大小是影响设备和人员受伤害程度的重要因素。     

Methodology for global sensitivity analysis of consequence models

A methodology is presented for global sensitivity analysis of consequence models used in process safety applications. It involves running a consequence model around a hundred times and using the results to construct a statistical emulator, which is essentially a sophisticated curve fit to the data. The emulator is then used to undertake the sensitivity analysis and identify which input parameters (e.g. operating temperature and pressure, wind speed) have a significant effect on the chosen output (e.g. vapour cloud size). Performing the sensitivity analysis using the emulator rather than the consequence model itself leads to significant savings in computing time.To demonstrate the methodology, a global sensitivity analysis is performed on the Phast consequence model for discharge and dispersion. The scenarios studied consist of above-ground, horizontal, steady-state discharges of dense-phase carbon dioxide (CO₂), with orifices ranging in diameter from ½ to 2 inch and the liquid CO₂ stagnation conditions maintained at between 100 and 150 bar. These scenarios are relevant in scale to leaks from large diameter above-ground pipes or vessels.Seven model input parameters are varied: the vessel temperature and pressure, orifice size, wind speed, humidity, ground surface roughness and height of the release. The input parameters that have a dominant effect on the dispersion distance of the CO₂ cloud are identified, both in terms of their direct effect on the dispersion distance and their indirect effect, through interactions with other varying input parameters.The analysis, including the Phast simulations, runs on a standard office laptop computer in less than 30 min. Tests are performed to confirm that a hundred Phast runs are sufficient to produce an emulator with an acceptable degree of accuracy. Increasing the number of Phast runs is shown to have no effect on the conclusions of the sensitivity analysis.The study demonstrates that Bayesian analysis of model sensitivity can be conducted rapidly and easily on consequence models such as Phast. There is the potential for this to become a routine part of consequence modelling.     

米诺效应中的多事故点协同作用后果研究

为了研究多米诺效应中多事故点协同作用的后果,将并联系统概率模型运用到贝叶斯概率计算过程中,体现出多事故点协同作用对多米 诺效应传播的概率影响;后果分析部分从人、物、环境3个方面出发,对事故的后果影响以及事故预防提出建议措施。最后运用模型对实例进行 了应用分析,结果表明:多事故点协同作用下储罐的多米诺失效概率增大,罐区危险性增强,可以通过对储罐设置安全屏障等措施,有效的切 断导致事故最大概率的链条。     

基于多米诺效应的输油管道重大事故后果分析

针对近年来不断发生的输油管道重大事故,引入多米诺效应理论分析输油管道事故后果。首先依据多米诺效应机理,建立输油管道重大事故多米诺效应模型,然后采用PHAST软件确定初始事故影响范围,运用设备损坏概率和人员伤亡概率模型计算初始事故对周围设备和个体的影响概率,从而可以从设备损坏、人员伤亡和事故影响范围三个方面定量分析输油管道的事故后果。研究结果对制定输油管道重大事故应急抢险方案,避免事故影响范围进一步扩大具有理论指导意义。     

A fuzzy set analysis to estimate loss intensity following blast wave interaction with process equipment

Blast waves are able to produce structural damage to process equipment even at great distances from the source point of an explosion. A loss of containment may follow and, if hazardous substances are released, relevant secondary scenarios may be triggered, resulting in domino effects.The present study was focused on the assessment of the expected structural damage and of the associated intensity of loss of containment of process vessels loaded by blast waves. Hence, a knowledge-based fuzzy set analysis was used to assess the expected overall probability of occurrence of different damage states defined for several categories of process equipment items. The fuzzy approach was also used to obtain specific threshold values for the escalation sequences (domino effects), taking into account the hazard due to the expected secondary scenarios caused by the loss of containment following blast wave impact.     

Underground parallel pipelines domino effect: An analysis based on pipeline crater models and historical accidents

This paper focuses on the analysis of the possibility of domino effect in underground parallel pipelines relying on historical accident data and pipeline crater models. An underground pipeline can be considered as safe following an accident with an adjacent gas or liquefied pipeline when it remains outside the ground crater generated. In order to prevent the domino effect in these cases, the design of parallel pipelines has to consider adequate pipeline separations based on the crater width, which is one of the widely used methods in engineering applications. The objective of this work is the analysis of underground petroleum product pipelines ruptures with the formation of a ground crater as well as the evaluation of possible domino effects in these cases. A detailed literature survey has been carried out to review existing crater models along with a historical analysis of past accidents. A FORTRAN code has been implemented to assess the performance of the Gasunie, the Batelle and the Advantica crater models. In addition to this, a novel Accident-Based crater model has been presented, which allows the prediction of the crater width as a function of the relevant design pipeline parameters as well as the soil density. Modifications have also been made to the Batelle and Accident-Based models in order to overcome the underestimation of the crater width. The calculated crater widths have been compared with real accident data and the performance evaluation showed that the proposed Accident-Based model has a better performance compared to other models studied in this work. The analysis of forty-eight past accidents indicated a major potential of underground parallel pipelines domino effect which is proven by two real cases taken from the literature. Relying on the investigated accidents, the crater width was smaller than or equal to 20 m in most cases indicating that the definition of underground pipeline separations at around 10 m would be sufficient to ensure a small probability of the domino effect.