Effects of hydrogen addition on propagation characteristics of premixed methane/air flames

An experimental study has been conducted to investigate the effects of hydrogen addition on the fundamental propagation characteristics of methane/air premixed flames at different equivalence ratios in a venting duct. The hydrogen fraction in the methane–hydrogen mixture was varied from 0 to 1 at equivalence ratios of 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2. The results indicate that the tendency towards flame instability increased with the fraction of hydrogen, and the premixed hydrogen/methane flame underwent a complex shape change with the increasing hydrogen fraction. The tulip flame only formed when the fraction of hydrogen ranged from 0 to 50% at an equivalence ratio of 0.8. It was also found that the flame front speed and the overpressure increased significantly with the hydrogen fraction. For all equivalence ratios, the stoichiometric flame (Φ = 1.0) has the shortest time of flame propagation and the maximum overpressure.     

Safety parameters for oxygen-enriched flames

The utilization of low-quality gaseous fuel from biomass gasification and the abundance of oxygen-rich streams obtained as a by-product of nitrogen-air separation by membrane technology has incentivized the development of sustainable oxygen-enriched combustion technologies in the last decades. However, a dearth of experimental and numerical analysis addressing the reactivity and safety aspects of these mixtures at initial low temperatures can be observed in the current literature.In this work, the heat flux burner was adopted for the measurement of the laminar burning velocity of methane in oxygen enriched air at different equivalence ratios. Results were compared with numerical data obtained by means of detailed kinetic mechanisms developed at the University of Bologna and the Gas Research Institute (GriMech3.0). Simplified correlations for the estimation of the laminar burning velocity with respect to the oxygen content at any equivalence ratio were developed, tested and evaluated.An elemental reaction-based function was found appropriate for the estimation of the overall reactivity of the investigated mixtures. Besides, numerical analyses were performed to characterize the flame structures in terms of temperature and product distribution under several initial conditions. These results gave further insights into the reaction mechanisms of gaseous fuels in the case of oxygen-enriched air, highlighting potential bottlenecks for kinetic model refinements. Eventually, relevant safety parameters were estimated, in particular the flammability range of the fuel/oxidant mixture, in terms of lower and upper flammability limits.     

Experimental study on explosion inhibition by heptafluoropropane and its synergy with inert gas

The inhibition effect of heptafluoropropane (CF₃CHFCF₃) on methane explosions under different inhibitor concentrations in a closed vessel was studied. A high-speed camera and a pressure sensor were adopted respectively to record flame propagation characteristics and pressure data. Results indicate that the relationship between flame propagation and pressure rising was correlated. As the equivalent ratio (ϕ)≤1, the pressure presented a trend of rising firstly and then decreasing with increasing CF₃CHFCF₃ concentration, and it was found that there existed a critical concentration for pressure decrease. As ϕ > 1, the pressure exhibited a decreasing trend. Although the pressure appeared to seemingly increase, the moment that the pressure began to rise (t_rise) and the moment that the maximum explosion overpressure appeared (t_Pmax) were obviously delayed. The average rate of pressure rise ((dP/dt)_ave) was decreased as the concentration of CF3CHFCF3 increased. It indicates that CF₃CHFCF₃ can effectively reduce the explosion reaction rate. The critical concentration of CF₃CHFCF₃ for complete inhibition was determined. Meanwhile, the synergy of CF₃CHFCF₃-inert gas can improve the inhibition effect. Compared with CF₃CHFCF₃–N₂, the synergy of CF₃CHFCF₃–CO₂ presented a better inhibition effect, and the inhibition effect was increased with increasing inert gas concentration. And the mechanisms of physical and chemical effects on explosion inhibition were analyzed.     

管道截面对氢气/空气预混爆炸影响的实验研究

为研究管道截面对氢气/空气预混火焰形状与传播速度的影响,选用三个长度都为1m而截面尺寸不同的方形管道进行实验。实验结果表明,在截面为80mm×80mm的管道中,四种氢气浓度下预混火焰都发展形成了郁金香火焰。火焰传播速度呈现上升,下降,再上升的波动。在截面为100mm×100mm和150mm×150mm的管道中,只有在氢气浓度20%下形成郁金香火焰,并且传播速度也出现上述的波动。而在氢气浓度25%,30%,40%下,预混火焰都呈指尖形传至管口,未出现郁金香火焰,传播速度都是不断上升。三个管道对比中,截面为100mm×100mm的管道内火焰平均传播速度最快,且压力波第一峰值最大。     

An analytical model for predicting counterflow flame propagation through premixed dust micro particles with radiative heat loss

In this paper, an analytical model has been performed to scrutinize the structure of the flame propagation in counterflow configuration where the mixture of solid fuel particles and air are injected as opposed streams. The structure of counterflow premixed flame in a symmetric configuration, containing uniformly distributed volatile fuel particles, with nonunity Lewis number is examined with considering radiative heat loss effect in counterflow configuration with strain rate issue. The flame structure governing equations, required boundary conditions, and matching conditions are applied for each zone in order to solve the differential equations. The flame position is determined, mass fraction of solid particles and gaseous phases, effect of Lewis number change on the gaseous and solid fuel mass fraction distribution, and the role of strain rate, and different particle diameters are investigated with and without considering thermal radiation effect. In addition, the effect of equivalence ratio on the flame temperature, mixture temperate and non-dimensional flame position is investigated in counterflow flame propagation. According to our finding, the burning velocity of counterflow flame remarkably increases as a function of vaporization Damköhler number as well as non-dimensional vaporization temperature with considering thermal radiation effect in counterflow domain.     

Structure of flames propagating through aluminum particles cloud and combustion process of particles

Structure of flames propagating through aluminum particles clouds and combustion processes of the particles have been examined experimentally to understand the fundamental behavior of a metal dust explosion. The combustion process of individual aluminum particles in a flame propagating through the aluminum particles cloud has been recorded by using a high-speed video camera with a microscopic optical system, and analyzed. The flame is shown to be consisted of a preheat zone of about 3 mm thick, followed by a combustion zone of 5–7 mm thick. In the combustion zone, discrete gas phase flames are observed around each aluminum particle. Also an asymmetric flame around a particle is observed, which might be caused by an ejection of aluminum vapor from a crack of oxide shell surrounding the particle.     

Experimental study on the competing effect of ceramic pellets on premixed methane-air flame propagation in a duct

It is urgent to explore effective suppression methods for gas fires and explosions to ensure the safe utilizations of combustible gases in industrial processes. In this work, experiments are performed to study the effect of spherical ceramic pellets on premixed methane-air flame propagation in a closed duct. High-speed schlieren photography and pressure transducers are used to record the flame propagation and pressure transient, respectively. Behaviors of the flame propagating through a section of the duct filled with ceramic pellets in mixtures at different equivalence ratios are scrutinized. Three different diameters of pellets are considered in the experiments. The result shows that the flame can be quenched in the case with a smaller pellet diameter (3 mm) for a wide range of equivalence ratios from fuel-lean to fuel-rich mixture. For larger pellet diameter (5 or 10 mm), flame extinction occurs in fuel-rich mixtures (e.g. Φ = 1.1, 1.2). For the cases of flame surviving through the pellets bed, the pellets show a significant influence on the flame structure and behavior. The flame propagation depends on the porosity and the mean void diameter of the porous media in the pellets bed. Small void diameter is beneficial to flame quenching, while large porosity can accelerate the flame propagation. The pressure dynamics evolution is closely related to the interaction of flame with the pellets, and it depends on whether the flame quenches in the pellets bed. Overall, d = 3 mm ceramic pellets display the best suppression effect on flame propagation and pressure buildup in this study. The results of this study are of great significance to guide the safety design of spherical suppression materials in engineering applications for process safety researchers and engineers.     

Combustion hazard of mixing ammonia with nitric oxide

Premixed ammonia/nitric oxide flame was simulated using the Lindstedt 1994 and Miller–Bowman 1989 reaction mechanisms in CHEMKIN. The predicted laminar burning velocities compared well with limited measured values in the literature. The effects of unburnt mixture temperature and pressure on laminar burning velocity, flammability limits, adiabatic flame temperature and species profiles were studied. The unburnt mixture temperature had a positive impact on both the laminar burning velocity and the adiabatic flame temperature, and it extended the ammonia-rich flammability limit. The pressure had a marginally negative influence on the laminar burning velocity, while it had a slightly positive effect on the adiabatic flame temperature.     

Investigation of spark ignition processes of laminar strained premixed stoichiometric NH3-H2-air flames

A knowledge of the ignition properties of ammonia (NH${}_3$)/hydrogen (H${}_2$) mixtures is important because of their abundance in chemical engineering processes, and also because of their prospective role as fuels in future energy systems. In particular, the question arises if and how important characteristics like ignition limits and minimum ignition energies in NH${}_3$/H${}_2$ mixtures are related to the physical conditions. To address this question, this work studies ignition process in ammonia/hydrogen mixtures by numerical simulations. These track the evolution of ammonia/hydrogen mixtures during and after the deposition of a certain ignition energy, using a detailed treatment of chemical reactions and molecular transport. Studies on the influence of different system parameters on the minimally required ignition energy are performed. These are the strain rate, hydrogen content, pressure and initial (pre-ignition) temperature. Significant findings include a quasi-linear correlation between the transition strain rate, defined as the strain rate below which no external energy is required to initiate successful ignition (auto-ignition) and a characteristic reaction rate, defined as the inverse of ignition delay time in homogeneous, quiescent mixtures. Also, the relative decay of minimum ignition energy with increasing hydrogen content is less pronounced for higher pressures. Analysis of the results supports a knowledge-based approach towards fail-proof ignition devices and reliable prevention of hazards. The simulations are used for assessing the ignitability of ammonia and its mixtures with hydrogen.     

Influence of inert materials on the self-ignition of flammable dusts

Flammable solid bulk materials, including dusts, often undergo spontaneous combustion and the spread of reaction fronts. By addition of inert substances, the ignition and combustion behavior can be influenced. In a series of experiments different types of coal were mixed with inert powders to study the effect of the composition on the self-ignition temperature and on the formal kinetic parameters.Hot storage tests as well as simultaneous-thermal analysis were used as experimental techniques with the latter being coupled to FTIR measurements to analyze the composition of gaseous reaction products.All conducted hot storage experiments led to the conclusion that the self-ignition temperature was increased by admixing inert material if the decomposition temperature of the inert matter was higher than the self-ignition temperature of the combustible component at the sample characteristic length. If (exothermic) decomposition of the inert material occurred before a noticeable growth of reaction rate of the combustible material, even a reduction in the self-ignition temperature could be observed. In addition, significantly higher maximum reaction temperatures were observed for the mixtures than for the combustible material alone.     

基于浓度敏感性分析的甲烷机理简化

随着数值模拟技术的发展,化学反应机理开始应用于燃烧过程的重构和深入分析。详细机理是通过大量的实验研究得到的,其包含了大量的化学反应动力学信息,可以较为完备的描述化学反应过程,但是由于详细机理过于庞大一般不能直接运用到数值模拟中去,很有必要在研究特定问题时对详细机理进行一定的简化。介绍了PCAS机理简化方法,并运用该方法对甲烷燃烧的详细机理进行了简化研究,通过简化得到的101步简化机理与详细机理吻合较好。     

On the determination of the laminar burning velocity from closed vessel gas explosions

A methodology to determine the laminar burning velocity from closed vessel gas explosions is explored. Unlike other methods which have been used to measure burning velocities from closed vessel explosions, this approach belongs to the category which does not involve observation of a rapidly moving flame front. Only the pressure–time curve is required as experimental input. To verify the methodology, initially quiescent methane–air mixtures were ignited in a 20-l explosion sphere and the equivalence ratio was varied from 0.67 to 1.36. The behavior of the pressure in the vessel was measured as a function of time and two integral balance models, namely, the thin-flame and the three-zone model, were fitted to determine the laminar burning velocity. Data on the laminar burning velocity as a function of equivalence ratio, pressure and temperature, measured by a variety of other methods have been collected from the literature to enable a comparison. Empirical correlations for the effect of pressure and temperature on the laminar burning velocity have been reviewed and two were selected to be used in conjunction with the thin-flame model. For the three-zone model, a set of coupled correlations has been derived to describe the effect of pressure and temperature on the laminar burning velocity and the laminar flame thickness. Our laminar burning velocities are seen to fall within the band of data from the period 1953–2003. A comparison with recent data from the period 1994–2003 shows that our results are 5–10% higher than the laminar burning velocities which are currently believed to be the correct ones for methane–air mixtures. Based on this observation it is concluded that the methodology described in this work should only be used under circumstances where more accurate methods can not be applied.     

Numerical investigation of effects on premixed hydrogen/air flame propagation in pipes with different contraction or expansion angles

Numerical simulations of premixed hydrogen-air flame propagation in a pipe with different contraction or expansion angles are carried out in this study. The effects on the flame propagation characteristics are investigated, including flame shape, the speed of flame front and overpressure. Results show that the flame propagation at different contraction angles experiences 6 flame stages: spherical flame stage, finger-shaped flame stage, stage of flame front touching the sidewalls, classic tulip flame stage, dissipation stage of tulip flame and its re-formation stage. The formation of tulip flame and the following stages are promoted by the contraction structure. Meanwhile, the development of the flow and pressure fields near the contraction are analyzed and it is found that the paraclinical effects induced by the contraction angle enhance the tulip re-formation. In the sudden expansion pipes, a triple flame stage appears in the pipes. The flame front remains relatively static for a period of time. However, the flame would continue to propagate when the expansion angle becomes larger and the flame propagation distance in the ducts increased obviously with the larger expansion angle. Baroclinic effect can inhibit the intensity of the vortex in the flow field, and hence weaken the forward transport of fuel. This inhibit effects decrease with the expansion angle becomes larger. The results of this study have implications concerning designs for pipe geometry of hydrogen and may help get better hydrogen transportation.     

The influence of inert gas on limiting experimental safe gap of fuel-air mixtures at various initial pressures

The Maximum Experimental Safe Gap (MESG) is an important criterion to assess the propagation of flames through small gaps. This safety-related parameter is used to classify the flammable gases and vapors in explosion groups, which are fundamental to constructional explosion protection. It is used both, for the safe design of flameproof encapsulated devices as well as for selecting flame arresters appropriate to the individual application. The MESG of a fuel is determined experimentally according to the standard ISO/IEC 80079-20-1:2017 at normal conditions (20 °C, 1.0 bar) with air as oxidizing gas. The aim of this work is to investigate the effect of inert gas addition on the MESG in order to assess the effectiveness of inertization in constructional explosion protection. The term limiting experimental safe gap (S_G) is used for the result of these measurements. The fuel-air mixtures (fuels: hydrogen, ethylene, propene, methane) used as representatives for the explosion groups in flame arrester testing were chosen and diluted with inert gas (nitrogen, carbon dioxide) before testing. The dependence of the limiting experimental safe gap on the total initial pressure, amount and nature of inert additive is discussed. The initial pressure was varied up to 2.0 bar to include increased pressure conditions used in flame arrester testing. Apart from the well-known reciprocal dependence on the initial pressure, the added inert gas results in an exponential increase of S_G. This effect depends on the inertizing potential of the gas and is therefore different with nitrogen and carbon dioxide. The ranking of the fuels is the same as with MESG. As a result, various mixtures of the same limiting experimental safe gap can now be chosen and tested with an individual flame arrester to prove the concept of a constant and device-related limiting safe gap. The work was funded by BG-RCI in Heidelberg (PTB grant number 37056).     

不同边沿高度油池火燃烧行为的实验和数值模拟研究

采用实验和FDS数值模拟相结合的方法,探讨了边沿高度对油池火燃烧特性的影响。在实验部分,研究了燃烧速率和表观火焰高度随边沿高度的变化趋势,并分别分析了各个阶段的热反馈机制。在实验获得不同尺度、边沿高度正庚烷油池火燃烧速率的前提下,建立相应尺度的不同边沿高度油池火的Fire Dynamics Simulator(FDS)计算模型以针对火焰高度进行了数值模拟研究,分析了实际火焰高度、火焰下探高度随边沿高度的变化趋势,并提出了相关的无量纲拟合式。     

Suppression of flame propagation in a long duct by inertia isolation with inert gases

Experimental studies were done with a small pipe with a diameter of 0.043 m and a large pipe with a diameter of 0.49 m to demonstrate the flame propagation suppression with inertia isolation in a long duct. Tests were carried in an ignition section containing propylene/air mixture near stoichiometric concentration and generating a peak flame propagation speed of approximately 100 m/s. The ignition section is connected to a section filled with an inert gas, another section with flammable mixtures, and finally a sufficiently long, ambient section to accommodate flame propagation. The critical length of the inert gas section required for successful suppression of flame from the igniting the flammable section is found to be 0.6 m for CO₂ and 0.9 m for N₂ in the large pipe and 0.2 m for CO₂ and 0.3 m for N₂ in the small pipe. Additional tests with a 3 m of ignition section and peak flame propagation speed of 225 m/s showed that the critical length for successful suppression by CO₂ is only increased slightly to 0.9 m, confirming that the suppression is a result of inertia isolation rather than inert gas dilution. Finally, application of the results in responding to large-scale leak into a long, underground duct is discussed.     

预混乙炔-空气爆燃火焰在平板狭缝中传播与熄灭的实验研究

通过对预混乙炔-空气爆燃火焰在平板狭缝中的传播与熄灭过程进行试验研究,分析临界火焰传播速度、狭缝高度和熄灭长度之间的关系。实验结果表明,当狭缝高度一定时,临界火焰传播速度越大,熄灭长度越大,熄灭长度与临界火焰传播速度近似呈正比例关系。在相同的临界火焰传播速度条件下,随着狭缝高度的增加,熄灭长度值迅速增大,说明狭缝高度对预混火焰的传播与熄灭有显著影响。     

Heat transfer and burning behavior of ADP/MPP epoxy intumescent coatings

Thermal protection of chemical storage tanks is very important when a fire accident occurs. Intumescent coating on the surface of the tank is one of efficient measures to prevent fire. It is essential to investigate the interaction between heat transfer and burning behavior of intumescent coating, which will affect the fire-proof performance of the coating. In this paper, ADP/MPP epoxy intumescent coatings were prepared by adding the intumescent flame retardants aluminum diethylphosphinate (ADP) and melamine phenyl phosphonate (MPP) into epoxy resin (EP). The heat transfer process and burning behavior were analyzed by temperature distribution, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), cone calorimeter and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results showed that the ratio of ADP and MPP, the intumescent characteristics and the structure of the char layer can affect the heat transfer of the coating remarkably. The residual char morphology analysis shows that the coating containing ADP and MPP is more capable of forming a well-structured char layer structure and shows a good thermal insulation performance.     

An experimental study on the burning rate of a continuously released n-heptane spill fire on an open water surface

Spill fires are common during oil product storage and transportation after a loss of containment. Since the burning fuel is moving and the fuel depth is quite shallow, the burning rate in a spill fire is different from that of a pool fire with a static burning zone. Unlike pool fires, which have been studied for decades and have well-established correlations for burning rate, research on spill fires is inadequate. In this paper, continuously released n-heptane spill fire experiments were conducted on open water surfaces with varying fuel discharge rates. The pool diameters were measured, and the spill fire burning rates were estimated based on a dynamic balance between fuel supply and combustion. The burning rates in n-heptane pool fires from the literature were reviewed and compared with the estimated burning rates in spill fires of the same dimension. The spill fire burning rate was found to be close to that in a pool fire during the initial burning phase but lower than that in a bulk burning pool fire and that in a “fuel-level-controlled” pool fire. The distinction between the burning rates of spill fires and pool fires is explained by the heat balance analysis of the fuel layer. A model for the spill fire burning rate was proposed accordingly. The results calculated with the presented model are closer to the measured data than those calculated with pool fire models.