Analysis of pitting corrosion on steel under insulation in marine environments

Corrosion under insulation (CUI) is an important issue in marine environments. Pitting corrosion is a significant contributor to this issue. The ability to understand and model pitting behavior is integral to designing and maintaining assets in marine environments to decreased costs and increase safety and productivity. This paper reviews and analyses six categories of pitting knowledge to assess the current depth and breadth of understanding and to identify knowledge gaps in each category. The categories investigated are: identification of pitting, experimental methods, mechanism of pitting, modeling of pitting corrosion rates, remaining life assessment modeling, and risk-based inspections. This analysis finds that the depth of knowledge on pitting corrosion rate modeling and pitting mechanism is limited and requires further detailed study. The outcome of such study will strengthen pitting corrosion rate modeling, the accuracy of fitness-for-service assessments and risk-based inspection strategies.     

A spatial-temporal approach for corrosion prediction in time-varying marine environment

Corrosion in seawater is simultaneously influenced by multiple environmental factors including dissolved oxygen (DO), temperature, salinity, pH, and so on. These factors vary along with time and are different in different locations. The spatial-temporal variation of the actual marine environment cannot be ignored in corrosion prediction models. This paper proposes a new method for corrosion prediction in the actual time-varying marine environment which includes the design of experiments, calibration of acceleration models, and the modeling of marine environment. Acceleration models capture the effects of environmental factors and acts as the link between the environment and the corrosion process. The marine environment is described with the Kriging spatial-temporal model. Then the proposed method is used to give corrosion predictions for metals in different locations and vessels travel in different waters. This method could be helpful for corrosion resistance evaluation and environment corrosivity assessment.     

A distributed fibre optic approach for providing early warning of Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)

A novel fully distributed fibre optic humidity sensor technology suitable for spatially continuous monitoring of water ingress under pipeline insulation is reported. Results from controlled water ingress tests are presented, where the fibre cables were mounted on pipes insulated with air gap cell glass and aerogel insulation. The experiments revealed that the fibre optic sensor responded to water ingress equivalent to <10 ml/metre pipe, under air gap cell glass insulation. The fibre optic measurements were validated by comparison with conventional calibrated point humidity sensors. A compensation methodology using a reference optical fibre was used to effectively reduce the effect of temperature variations on the measurements. The ability of the sensor to monitor the spatial evolution of water ingress with cm scale resolution was demonstrated, as was the feasibility to make accurate water ingress measurement over 2 km fibre lengths. The technology could be used to assist targeted inspection campaigns aimed at minimizing the risk of Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI).     

Modelling of pitting corrosion in marine and offshore steel structures – A technical review

Corrosion is a major cause of structural deterioration in marine and offshore structures. It affects the life of process equipment and pipelines, and can result in structural failure, leakage, product loss, environmental pollution and the loss of life. Pitting corrosion is regarded as one of the most hazardous forms of corrosion for marine and offshore structures. The total loss of the structure might be very small, but local rate of attack can be very large and can lead to early catastrophic failure. Pitting corrosion is a localized accelerated dissolution of metal that occurs as a result of a breakdown in the protective passive film on the metal surface. It has been studied for many years; however, the structural failure due to pit characteristics is still not fully understood. Accurate pit depth measurements, precise strength assessment techniques, risk analysis due to pitting, and the mathematical relationship of the environmental factors that causes pitting failure are also factors, which need further understanding. Hence this paper focuses on these issues. It reviews and analyses the current understanding of the pitting corrosion mechanism and investigates all possible factors that can cause pitting corrosion. Furthermore, different techniques employed by scientists and researchers to identify and model the pitting corrosion are also reviewed and analysed. Future work should involve an in-depth scientific study of the corrosion mechanism and an engineering predictive model is recommended in order to assess failure, and thereby attempt to increase the remaining life of offshore assets.     

Development of HGAPSO-SVR corrosion prediction approach for offshore oil and gas pipelines

Managing the oil and gas pipelines against corrosion is one of the major challenges of the oil and gas sector because of the complexities associated with the initiation, stabilization, and growth of the corrosion defects. The present research attempts to develop a model for predicting the maximum depth of pitting corrosion in oil and gas pipelines using SVM algorithm. In order to improve the SVM performance, Hybrid PSO and GA was utilized. Monte Carlo simulation was used to determine the time lapse for the pit depth growth. In order to implement the above modeling approaches and to prove their efficiency and accuracy against a large database, a total of 340 data samples for corrosion depth and rate are retrieved from the Iranian Oilfields. The performance of the new algorithm shows that it has higher stability and accuracy. In addition, the forecasting results of the new algorithm are compared with the 11 intelligent optimization algorithms, it shows that the novel hybrid algorithm has higher accuracy, better generalization ability, and stronger robustness. The coefficient of determination (R²) value in the testing phase for SVM-HGAPSO was estimated by 0.99. Proposed hybrid model and Monte-Carlo simulations pitting corrosion based on Poisson square wave process have been used to predict the time evolution of the mean value of the pit depth distribution for different categories of maximum pitting rates (low, moderate, high and sever). The models was validated with 4 field data for each of the pitting corrosion categories and the results agreed well. The pipelines under severe pitting corrosion rate were, more conservatively predicted by HGAPSO-SVR than those under low, moderate and high pitting corrosion rates. The results obtained demonstrate the potentials of this technique for the integrity management of corroded aged pipelines.     

CO2 corrosion control in steel pipelines. Influence of turbulent flow on the performance of corrosion inhibitors

Corrosion associated with aqueous environments containing carbon dioxide (CO₂) and/or hydrogen sulphide (H₂S), is a well-known phenomenon in oil and gas industries. This type of corrosion is of particular importance in transportation through steel pipelines. This transportation process could involve the movement of a complex mixture of gas and liquids. This moving mixture is in close contact with the inner surface of the steel pipelines and corrosion can occur. It has been demonstrated that this corrosion is influenced by flow.In oil and gas industries, film-forming corrosion inhibitors are the main tool used to control inner corrosion in pipelines. The movement of the environment generates mechanical shear stresses on the surface of the steel that can interfere with the formation of the film. This phenomenon is frequently not taken into account in corrosion control strategies and could cause problems. Despite the importance of this, there are few scientific studies available, which can provide control criteria.This work presents some ideas developed in order to understand the influence of flow on the corrosion process, making emphasis in the corrosion process associated with carbon dioxide (CO₂).     

钢筋与混凝土界面的腐蚀疲劳

腐蚀疲劳是钢筋混凝土结构破坏的主要因素之一。基于剪切筒模型及文中选用的实验加载方式 ,引入界面摩擦系数衰减表达式 ,同时考虑力学因素———应力比R和加载频率 f的影响 ,研究了钢筋与混凝土界面在拉 -拉循环荷载作用下腐蚀疲劳裂纹扩展情况。通过对Paris公式的修正 ,借助能量耗散率给出腐蚀疲劳数学模型 ,得到了界面腐蚀疲劳脱粘速率 ,脱粘长度与循环荷载作用次数的关系。最后与无腐蚀情况的结果进行比较 ,分析了影响界面腐蚀疲劳 (CF)裂纹扩展速率的因素 ,如应力比 ,加载频率。     

基于模拟的腐蚀管道可靠性分析

腐蚀失效是压力管道失效的主要模式之一。通常采用腐蚀管道剩余强度估算的方法 ,评价腐蚀管道的安全性。腐蚀管道的剩余寿命则采用可靠性理论计算得到。以各种局部腐蚀缺陷的评定方法来建立模拟模型 ,直接采用蒙特卡罗模拟可以计算得到不同时间下的管道的失效概率 ,同时根据目标可靠度来确定腐蚀管道的剩余寿命。含多个腐蚀缺陷的管道的失效概率需要考虑缺陷间的相关性。采用模拟方法可以计算失效概率的秩相关 ,避免采用独立假设来计算管道的失效概率     

腐蚀环境下飞机结构日历寿命研究现状与关键技术问题

介绍了军用飞机日历寿命研究的技术背景和国内外同类研究概况以及存在的问题。重点对腐蚀环境下飞机结构加速腐蚀试验技术、防腐涂层腐蚀损伤评定技术、腐蚀损伤和疲劳寿命的分布特性及其变化规律、腐蚀当量关系和日历寿命理论分析方法等几个关键问题及其技术途径进行了阐述和探讨。     

烧碱装置降膜蒸发器的腐蚀检查

铢覆层下腐蚀(碱腐蚀和碱应力腐蚀开裂)严重影响烧碱装置降膜蒸发器的安全运行。分析一起降膜蒸发器泄漏案例,发现分离器与管板角焊缝碱应力腐蚀破裂的主要原因是镍覆层焊缝存在贯穿性气孔,认为高浓度碱溶液环境中镍覆层致密性的检查和评价对镍-钢复合板设备安全运行具有重要意义。总结降膜蒸发器管束、管程壳体、焊接接头等部位镍覆层致密性失效导致的腐蚀损伤,提出了重点部位腐蚀检查的技术要求。     

Corrosion failure probability analysis of buried gas pipelines based on subset simulation

Corrosion is the main reason for the failure of buried gas pipelines. For effective corrosion failure probability analysis, the structural reliability theory was adopted in this study to establish two calculation models for pipeline corrosion failure: the pressure failure model and von Mises stress failure model. Then, two calculation models for the corrosion failure probability were established based on a corrosion depth growth model obtained from actual survey data of soil corrosion characteristics. In an example, Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) and subset simulation (SS) were used to analyze the corrosion failure probability of pipelines, and the results were compared. SS can compensate for the shortcomings of MCS as it has higher computational efficiency and accuracy. Therefore, SS was adopted to simulate variations in the corrosion failure probability of buried pipelines with the service time for the two failure probability calculation models, which were applied to a natural gas pipeline located in a chemical industry park in Zhuhai, China. A sensitivity analysis was carried out on the relevant parameters that affect the failure probability. The results showed that multiple loads caused by the covering soil, residual stress, temperature differential, and bending stress have a non-negligible effect on the pipeline reliability. The corrosion coefficients gradually become the most important factors that affect the failure probability with increased service time. The proposed methodology considers the actual operating conditions of pipelines to provide a reliable theoretical basis for integrity management.     

铁路隧道洞渣环境危害识别与处理研究

修建山区铁路桥隧比高,地质条件复杂,合理处置隧道洞渣是一项重要的环境保护工作。通过对隧道洞渣环境危害类型的分析,总结提出洞渣环境危害的常规和快速检测方法。对不能综合利用的洞渣,根据其类型及环境危害检测结果,选择合适的弃渣场进行堆置处理。特殊弃渣应根据其危害特性选择适宜的处理方法,以防止产生环境危害和污染。     

Predictive Models of Lumbar Loadings When Handling Boxes

Back problems resulting from the compression forces on the intervertebral disks during manual material-handling tasks are an important problem affecting workers in various industries. The quantification of these forces using intradiscal pressure or biomechanical modeling is complex, time consuming, and costly, and these methods cannot be readily used in the workplace to estimate loadings on the lower back. The objective of this study was to develop a predictive model that would allow the estimation of lumbar loadings for lifting and lowering boxes using easily measured anthropometric variables and variables related to the task. A dynamic and planar segmental model and a model of internal forces at L5/S1 were used to determine the compression forces on the lower back. Two predictive models, a field model and a laboratory model, were developed to estimate the compression forces when lifting or lowering 3.3 kg to 22.0 kg boxes between heights of 15 cm and 185 cm. Both models were validated by an examination of the residuals. Their predictive performance was also compared, with the laboratory model offering a slightly better prediction than the field model. Thus, these equations represent a practical tool for a better planning of handling tasks in the working environment with the purpose of reducing the back injuries of workers.     

Effectiveness and application of modified wind turbine coating: Adding ionic liquids to titanium dioxide and diatomaceous earth

Wind turbines are a green energy source that Taiwan has been endeavouring to develop in the past five years. Excellent onshore wind farms have already been developed; however, offshore development is inevitable because of Taiwan's limited land area. With regard to energy sustainability, operation and trouble-free maintenance of wind farms are essential. If damage to fan components can be mostly prevented, the operating cost and maintenance time would be considerably decreased; thus, remarkable economic benefits could be achieved. An appropriate coating can help a structure resist the stress of the working environment and improve its durability, resulting in lower maintenance cost and less staff being required to perform on-site repairs. Diatomaceous earth (DE) has been widely used to produce composite porous materials. In this study, epoxy resin and titanium dioxide were mixed with DE to increase the hydrophobicity of the surface of coatings and provide them photocatalytic self-cleaning ability. The ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate was also added to the coatings to prevent the corrosion of coated metallic material. This study employed thermal analysis to investigate the thermal stability of the coatings and the corrosion resistance of coated iron blocks. Finally, a self-made quartz container was connected to a volatile organic compound detector, and sun exposure was simulated using ultraviolet light. The results confirmed that the modified coating retained its functionality under the harsh working environment and can be applied to the surfaces of large machinery used in offshore wind turbine towers.     

火灾情境下认知生理反应与建筑物疏散标识优化研究

为研究火灾环境中人的认知生理变化规律,在心理实验室常规环境与受限空间火灾情境模拟中,分别运用E-Prime软件,对样本的心算、简单颜色、复杂颜色认知反应和心电生理反应进行了对照研究。结果表明:1)受限空间中的心算反应错误率高于心理实验室的测试结果,复杂颜色反应的错误率低于心理实验室的测试结果,两项目的反应时均值配对t检验均存在显著差异,简单颜色测试项目的错误率与反应时均值在对照试验中的变化均不显著;2)75%被试在情境模拟试验中的心率变化明显,配对t检验达到显著水平,15名被试心电图有小幅波动但波段振幅范围正常,5名被试出现轻微房颤与心律失常症状;3)基于人的认知生理反应规律,在建筑物现有疏散标识体系的基础上,提出了增设局部疏散标识的建议。     

Analytical Study of the Heat Loss Attenuation by Clothing on Thermal Manikins Under Radiative Heat Loads

For wearers of protective clothing in radiation environments there are no quantitative guidelines available for the effect of a radiative heat load on heat exchange. Under the European Union funded project ThermProtect an analytical effort was defined to address the issue of radiative heat load while wearing protective clothing. As within the ThermProtect project much information has become available from thermal manikin experiments in thermal radiation environments, these sets of experimental data are used to verify the analytical approach. The analytical approach provided a good prediction of the heat loss in the manikin experiments, 95% of the variance was explained by the model. The model has not yet been validated at high radiative heat loads and neglects some physical properties of the radiation emissivity. Still, the analytical approach provides a pragmatic approach and may be useful for practical implementation in protective clothing standards for moderate thermal radiation environments.     

Component failure recognition and maintenance optimization for offshore heave compensation systems based on importance measures

Heave compensation systems work to reduce the influence of unpredictable marine environments on offshore operations and are powered by hydraulic systems. As an important approach in the reliability field, importance measure assesses the impact of components on a system. This paper considers the importance of hydraulic system components for system performance. By analyzing the working state of each component in the passive compensation and active compensation phases, the working principle of the hydraulic system of a semi-active heave compensation experimental system is explained. According to the actual design of the experimental system and its working principle, eight types of 27 components, whose failures affect the performance, are extracted. The servo valve and the accumulator are determined to be redundant while the other components are nonredundant. Two performance-related importance measures, Griffith importance measure (GIM) and integrated importance measure (IIM), are then applied to sort the components of the hydraulic system and determine the maintenance sequence. Finally, based on the IIM value and the maintenance cost of each component, optimization strategies are proposed under different conditions using total cost and time as independent variables.     

A sequential probability ratio test (SPRT) to detect changes and process safety monitoring

Detecting anomalies is an important problem that has been widely researched within diverse research areas and application domains. The early detection of faults may help avoid product deterioration, major damage to the machinery itself and damage to human health. This study proposes a robust fault detection method with an Artificial Neural Network-Multi-Layer Perceptron (ANN-MLP) and a statistical module based on Wald's sequential probability ratio test (SPRT). To detect a fault, this method uses the mean and the standard deviation of the residual noise obtained from applying a NARX (Nonlinear Auto-Regressive with eXogenous input) model. To develop the neural network model, the required training and testing data were generated at different operating conditions. To show the effectiveness of the proposed fault detection method, it was tested on a realistic fault of a distillation plant at the laboratory scale.     

Analysis on relationship between stress and drill cutting weight using numerical modeling - A case study in Jinjiazhuang coal mine

The relationship between stress and drill cutting weight (DCW) is studied with numerical modeling and field testing. Jinjiazhuang coal mine 110403 workface is used as a case study. Stress analysis of the workface is carried out with numerical modeling, with input parameters obtained from laboratory experiments. The stress of workface is examined at one section along the mining direction in terms of the stress distribution. Comparing simulating results of stress and field testing drill cutting weight, the stress and drill cutting weight has good agreement and one formulation is derived in this case.     

Effect of CO2 corrosion behavior of mild steel in oilfield produced water

The corrosion rates of API X65 mild steel alloy in CO₂ – containing produced water have been studied by weight loss technique, potentiodynamic polarization technique and characterization of the corroded surface techniques. The effect of temperature, speed of rotation, pH and acetic acid concentration were studied. The optimum condition in presence and absence of protective film were also addressed. The kinetic parameters and reaction behavior were discussed in details. Corrosion rates increases with increasing temperature, acetic acid concentration, and speed of rotation, and decreased with increasing solution pH. The primary corrosion product of API X65 mild steel is ferrous carbonate (FeCO₃) at high temperatures, high pH's (alkaline media) and absence of acetic acid, which could act as a protective film so that CO₂ corrosion rate can be reduced.