Impact of local flame quenching on the flame acceleration in H2-CO-air mixtures in obstructed channels

In accident scenarios originating from weak ignition, flame acceleration preconditions the fresh gas ahead of the flame front and provides the necessary conditions for deflagration-to-detonation transition to occur. Strong shear layers, which form at the rear edge of obstacles in the accelerated flow of fast flames, isolate fresh gas pockets. Vortices in the intense shear layer have the potential to locally quench the flame, limiting the integral heat release and delaying the onset of detonation.This study investigates the potential of local turbulent quenching in H${}_2$-CO-air mixtures. First, the presence of locally reduced heat release is visualized in highly resolved simulations for H${}_2$-air and H${}_2$-CO-air flames. Efficient simulation methods are of great importance for risk analysis studies. In connection with the results from highly resolved simulations this justifies a more detailed look at RANS-based combustion models for said flames. Thus, three different treatments of turbulent quenching are investigated, in which the geometrical configuration (blockage ratio and obstacle spacing) and the geometry size is varied.The results indicate that quenching does not need to be considered in RANS-based combustion models for H${}_2$-CO-air flames in explosion scenarios. But since quenching does eventually occur at very high turbulence intensities, the authors suggest limiting the flame turbulence interaction to flame stretch values obtained from 1D counter-flow flame simulations with detailed chemistry.     

Efficient simulation of flame acceleration and deflagration-to-detonation transition in smooth pipes

Evaluation of accident scenarios including flame acceleration and deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) in chemical plant piping systems increases the need for an efficient numerical simulation tool capable of dealing with this phenomenon. In this work, a hybrid pressure-density-based solver including deflagrative flame propagation as well as detonation propagation is presented. The initial incompressible acceleration stage is covered by the pressure-based solver until the flame velocity reaches the fast flame regime and transition to the density-based solver is done. The deflagration source term is formulated in terms of a turbulent flame speed closure model incorporating various physical effects crucial for flame acceleration at low turbulence conditions (Katzy and Sattelmayer, 2018). Modelling of the detonation source term is based on a quadratic heat release function (Hasslberger, 2017). The presented numerical approach is validated in terms of DDT locations and pressure data from Schildberg (2015) as well as recently completed flame tip position measurements. For this purpose, H₂/O₂/N₂ mixtures ranging from 25.6 vol-% H₂ to 29.56 vol-% H₂ in two different pipe geometries are considered. The focus of the current work is on predicting the DDT location correctly and good agreement is observed for the investigated cases.     

Numerical simulation of flame acceleration and deflagration-to-detonation transition of ethylene in channels

Ethylene (C₂H₄) is a hydrocarbon fuel and widely used in chemical industry, however, ethylene is highly flammable and therefore presents a serious fire and explosion hazard. This work is initiated by addressing the hazard assessment of ethylene mixtures in different scale channels (d = 5 mm, 10 mm and 20 mm) from the aspect of flame acceleration (FA) and deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) by using large eddy simulation (LES) method coupled with the artificially thickened flame (ATF) approach. The fifth order local characteristics based weighted essentially non-oscillatory (WENO) conservative finite difference scheme is employed to solve the governing equations. The numerical results confirm that flame velocity increase rapidly at the beginning stage in three channels, and the flame acceleration rate is slower in the subsequent stage, afterwards, the flame velocity has an abrupt increase, and the onset of detonation occurs. Due to the fact that wall effect is significant in the narrow channel (e.g.,5 mm), especially in the ignition stage of the flame, flames have different shapes in wider channels (10 mm and 20 mm) and narrow channel (5 mm). Both the pressure and temperature profiles confirm DDT run-up distances are 0.251 m, 0.203 m and 0.161 m in 20 mm, 10 mm and 5 mm channels, respectively, which indicates that a shorter run-up distance is required in narrower channel. The cellular detonation structures for the ethylene-air mixture in different channels indicate that multi-headed detonation structures can be found in 20 mm channel, as the channel width decreases to 10 mm, detonation has a single-headed spinning structure, as the width is further reduced to 5 mm, only large longitudinal oscillation of the pressure can be observed.     

Gas flame acceleration in long ducts

In many practical situations, a flame may propagate along a pipe, accelerate and perhaps transform into a devastating detonation. This phenomenology has been known, more or less qualitatively, for a long time and mitigation techniques were proposed to try and avoid this occurrence (flame arresters, vents,...). A number of parameters need to be known and in particular the “distance to detonation” and more generally the flame acceleration characteristic scales. Very often, the ratio between the detonation run-up distance and the pipe diameter is used without any strong justification other that using a non-dimensional parameter (L/D). In this paper, novel experimental evidence is presented on the basis of relatively large scale experiments using 10 cm and 25 cm inner diameter duct with a length between 7 and 40 m. Homogeneous C₂H₄-air, CH₄-air, C₃H₈-air and H₂-air mixtures were used and different ignition sources. The interpretation suggests that the self-acceleration mechanism of the flame may be much better represented by flame instabilities than by turbulence build-up. One consequence would be that the maximum flame velocity and, following, the maximum explosion overpressure, would be rather linked with the run-up distance than with the L/D ratio.     

The nature and large eddy simulation of coherent deflagrations in a vented enclosure-atmosphere system

The nature of coherent deflagration phenomena in a vented enclosure-atmosphere system is analysed. The study is based on experimental observations of SOLVEX programme in the empty 547-m³ vented enclosure and consequent analysis of the same test by large eddy simulations (LES). A comparison between simulated and experimental pressure transients and dynamics of flame front propagation inside and outside the enclosure gave an insight into the nature of the complex simultaneous interactions between flow, turbulence and combustion inside the enclosure and in the atmosphere. It is revealed through LES processing of experimental data that the substantial intensification of premixed combustion occurs only outside the empty SOLVEX enclosure and this leads to steep coherent pressure rise in both internal and external deflagrations. The external explosion does not affect burning rate inside the enclosure. There is only one ad hoc parameter in the LES model, which is used to account for unresolved subgrid scale increase of flame surface density outside the enclosure. The model allows reaching an excellent match between theory and experiment for coherent deflagrations in the empty SOLVEX facility. The mechanism of combustion intensification in the atmosphere is discussed and the quantitative estimation of the model ad hoc parameter is given.     

Computer simulation of shock waves transmission in obstructed terrains

Generation and transmission of blast waves in real terrains is of major importance for risk analysis procedures involving accidental explosion scenarios. The problem arises from the impact of overpressure wave on people and structures that may be lethal or catastrophic under certain conditions. In this paper, a CFD simulation of shock wave propagation in obstructed terrain is attempted. Overpressure histories as well as a series of critical parameters, namely the positive and negative peak overpressure, the arrival time, and the positive and negative phase duration at specific points within the domain were obtained during the simulation. Their comparison with experimental measurements from field-scale high explosive blast tests performed by HSE showed a reasonably good agreement indicating that CFD computer programs provide reliable tools for estimating explosive shocks in complex terrains.     

某不稳定边界层单体建筑后方点源污染扩散的大涡模拟

首先产生大涡模拟所需要的入流湍流条件,然后应用标准Smagorinsky模型对位于某不稳定边界层的单体建筑后方点源污染扩散问题进行了数值模拟。结果表明,在不稳定条件下,使用大涡模拟能够较好地预测单体建筑的绕流特性和污染物分布。单体建筑绕流的湍流场十分复杂,空气流经建筑后发生了分离,在建筑后方形成了再循环区域,使高浓度气体被输送到建筑背面附近。受周期性涡脱落现象的影响,污染气体被释放后逐渐向建筑两侧及下游扩散,形成了较宽的扩散区域。气体的高浓度和低浓度瞬时等值面表现出了不同的特征。     

Evaluation of limits for effective flame acceleration in hydrogen mixtures

Results of experiments and data analysis on turbulent flame propagation in obstructed channels are presented. The data cover a wide range of mixtures: H₂/air, H₂/air/steam (from lean to rich) at normal and elevated initial temperatures (from 298 to 650 K) and pressures (from 1 to 3 bar); and stoichiometric H₂/O₂ mixtures diluted with N₂, Ar, He and CO₂ at normal initial conditions. The dataset chosen also covers a wide range of scales exceeding two orders of magnitude. It is shown that basic flame parameters, such as mixture expansion ratio σ, Zeldovich number β and Lewis number Le, can be used to estimate a priori a potential for effective flame acceleration for a given mixture. Critical conditions for effective flame acceleration are suggested in the form of correlations of critical expansion ratio σ^* versus dimensionless effective activation energy. On this basis, limits for effective flame acceleration for hydrogen combustibles can be estimated. Uncertainties in determination of critical σ^* values are discussed.     

Large eddy simulation and experimental study of the effect of wire mesh on flame behaviours of methane/air explosions in a semi-confined pipe

Preventing the propagation of flames in a pipeline is an effective measure for avoiding gas explosion accidents and reducing losses. To evaluate the effect of wire mesh, acting as a porous media, experimental and simulation studies are conducted to determine the influence of the wire mesh on the dynamics of premixed methane/air flame propagation in a semi-closed pipe. Four different kinds of wire mesh with different numbers of layers are chosen in the experiments and simulation, and the mechanism of wire mesh quenching of the flame is investigated. The experimental and simulation results are consistent. Flames are quenched when 4 layers of 40-mesh or 3 layers of 60-mesh wire mesh are used; however, once the flame propagates through the wire mesh, the risk of methane combustion may increase. The wire mesh becomes the key factor causing flame folds and acceleration, and the greater the number of layers or the larger the mesh size is, the more obvious the folds after the flame passes through the wire mesh. Moreover, the combination of heat absorption and disruption of the continuous flame surface by the mesh causes flame quenching. Wire mesh can effectively attenuate the flame temperature during premixed flame propagation in a pipe, and the attenuated maximum rate reaches approximately 79% in the case of adding 3 layers of 60-mesh wire mesh.     

Fast flame speeds and rates of pressure rise in the initial period of gas explosions in large L/D cylindrical enclosures

Flame speeds and rates of pressure rise for gaseous explosions in a 76 mm diameter closed cylindrical vessel of large length to diameter ratio (L/D = 21.6), were quantitatively investigated. Methane, propane, ethylene and hydrogen mixtures with air were studied across their respective flammability ranges. Ignition was affected at one end of the vessel. Very fast flame speeds corresponding to high rates of pressure rise were measured in the initial 5–10% of the total explosion time. During this period 20–35% of the maximum explosion pressure was produced, and over half of the flame propagation distance was completed. Previous work has concentrated on the later stages of this type of explosion; the development of tulip flames, pressure wave effects and transition to turbulence. The initial fast phase is very important and should dominate considerations in pressure relief vent design for vessels of large L/D.     

火焰撞击受限顶棚条件下顶棚最高温度数值模拟研究

顶棚下方最高温度是隧道火灾发展蔓延时的重要参数。针对火焰撞击顶棚并受到顶棚侧墙限制的强羽流驱动的顶棚射流,利用FDS模拟了18种缩尺寸隧道火灾工况,研究了顶棚下方最高温度随着火源功率、火源与顶棚距离的变化规律。结果表明:火焰撞击区域附近顶棚下方温度随着火源功率的增大而降低,随火源与顶棚距离的增大而升高;相反,在远离火源区域顶棚下方的温度随火源功率增大而升高,随火源与顶棚距离增大而降低;同时,通过分析隧道中心面上顶棚下方温度分布规律,提出了火焰撞击受限顶棚时顶棚下方最高温升的预测模型,研究结果能为实际的隧道消防提供一些参考。     

Experimental study of flame acceleration and the deflagration-to-detonation transition under conditions of transverse venting

Results of experiments on critical conditions for flame acceleration and the deflagration-to-detonation transition in tubes with transverse venting are presented. Tests were made with hydrogen mixtures in two tubes (inner diameter of 46 and 92 mm) with obstacles. Ratios of vent area to total tube area were 0.2 and 0.4. Venting was shown to influence flame acceleration significantly. The greater the vent ratio, the more reactive the mixture necessary for development of fast flames. Critical conditions for flame acceleration in tubes with venting, expressed through a critical mixture expansion ratio σ_cr, were found to be σ_cr/σ₀1+2, where σ₀ is the critical value for a closed tube. Critical conditions for detonation onset in a vented tube were found to be very close to those in a closed tube with similar configuration of obstacles.     

火前锋附壁的模拟实验研究

设计了可变坡度燃烧实验台,利用气体燃烧器模拟沟槽地形火蔓延中的火前锋。以丙烷为燃料,主要开展了不同坡度和高宽比(挡板高度与燃烧器宽度之比)条件下的气体燃烧实验。结果表明,坡度是影响火焰附壁的关键因素,挡板的存在限制了侧向卷吸从而加快火焰倾斜甚至附着。上坡火前锋存在一个发生火焰部分附着的临界坡度,该临界坡度不随挡板高宽比的变化而改变,该文的临界坡度为10°～15°。随坡度继续升高,高于另一临界坡度时,火焰完全附着在实验台面上,形成薄片状结构,发生火焰完全附着。附着火焰表现出明显的脉动性,随坡度的增大而增强,挡板的存在明显加剧了火焰脉动,而高宽比的变化对火焰脉动特性无显著影响。     

半密闭空间油气爆炸初期火焰特性研究

为了研究半密闭空间内部油气着火爆炸初期火焰特性,进行了不同油气体积分数下的油气着火爆炸实验,通过高速摄影等技术手段对爆炸过程中火焰形态进行了捕捉,分析了不同油气体积分数下爆炸初期火焰着火模式、火焰形态、传播过程和火焰浮力稳定性的变化规律。结果表明:油气体积分数为决定容器内部着火模式的关键因素,随着油气体积分数的逐渐增大,着火模式呈现出燃烧-爆炸-爆燃后持续燃烧的转变;爆炸下的火焰具有明显的分区现象,而其他的着火模式则没有;随着油气体积分数的增加,越靠近化学当量比,纵向和横向火焰阵面速度越大;油气体积分数小于等于1.1%或大于等于2.6%时,火焰稳定性受浮力影响显著。     

侧墙结构纵向多窗口羽流火焰融合的数值模拟

为了给高层建筑外部火蔓延防控提供参考,利用火灾动态仿真模拟软件PyroSim对无侧墙建筑的纵向多窗口羽流火焰与侧墙建筑的纵向多窗口羽流火焰进行了数值模拟,并改变侧墙长度,引入危险温度T=540℃、T1=350℃及T2=250℃,综合分析窗口温度曲线及等温线数据。结果表明:纵向多窗口羽流火焰产生相互融合现象,无侧墙建筑纵向相邻两窗口与三窗口的危险温度高度相似,比单窗口的危险温度高度提升了2.5~3.0 m;侧墙结构引起烟囱效应的作用效果与侧墙的长度呈正比,侧墙长度为3.6 m时,纵向多窗口的危险温度高度与无侧墙建筑相比,对T1和T2,高度提升了2.0~2.5 m,而对T,高度的影响较弱,羽流火焰的形状在纵向被拉长。     

An experimental study of flame acceleration and deflagration to detonation transition in representative process piping

The paper summarizes the results of experimental tests and accompanying analyses to investigate the factors that govern flame acceleration and potential transition to detonation in a relatively long unobstructed piping system. The overall aim of the work was to obtain sufficient experimental data so as to be able to develop and evaluate methodologies for classifying and predicting potential detonation flame acceleration and deflagration to detonation transition (DDT) hazard in industrial process pipes and mixtures. The present results show that the flame acceleration process in an unobstructed pipe exhibit three distinct phases: an initial establishment phase; a second rapid acceleration phase and a final transition to detonation phase. Test results with ethylene indicate that the acceleration process is not sensitive to initial pressure (all other parameters remaining constant) but can be sensitivity to initial pipe wall temperature or possibly mixture humidity. The presence of bends increases the local rate of turbulent combustion, an effect attributed to the additional turbulence generated downstream of the bend. For straight pipes, detonation was only observed to develop for hydrogen–air and ethylene–air mixtures. Detonation was not observed with methane, propane or acetone as fuel in the present piping apparatus.     

Numerical simulation of flame propagation and localized preflame autoignition in enclosures

A novel computational approach based on the coupled 3D Flame-Tracking–Particle (FTP) method is used for numerical simulation of confined explosions caused by preflame autoignition. The Flame-Tracking (FT) technique implies continuous tracing of the mean flame surface and application of the laminar/turbulent flame velocity concepts. The Particle method is based on the joint velocity–scalar probability density function approach for simulating reactive mixture autoignition in the preflame zone. The coupled algorithm is supplemented with the database of tabulated laminar flame velocities as well as with reaction rates of hydrocarbon fuel oxidation in wide ranges of initial temperature, pressure, and equivalence ratio. The main advantage of the FTP method is that it covers both possible modes of premixed combustion, namely, frontal and volumetric. As examples, combustion of premixed hydrogen–air, propane–air, and n-heptane–air mixtures in enclosures of different geometry is considered. At certain conditions, volumetric hot spots ahead of the propagating flame are identified. These hot spots transform to localized exothermic centers giving birth to spontaneous ignition waves traversing the preflame zone at very high apparent velocities, i.e., nearly homogeneous preflame explosion occurs. The abrupt pressure rise results in the formation of shock waves producing high overpressure peaks after reflections from enclosure walls.