Methodology for consequence analysis of LNG releases at deepwater port facilities

A methodology to perform consequence analysis associated with liquefied natural gas (LNG) for a deepwater port (DWP) facility has been presented. Analytical models used to describe the unconfined spill dynamics of LNG are discussed. How to determine the thermal hazard associated with a potential pool fire involving spilled LNG is also presented. Another hazard associated with potential releases of LNG is the dispersion of the LNG vapor. An approach using computational fluid dynamics tools (CFD) is presented. The CFD dispersion methodology is benchmarked against available test data. Using the proposed analysis approach provides estimates of hazard zones associated with newly proposed LNG deepwater ports and their potential impact to the public.     

Methodology for selecting hole sizes for consequence studies

Predicting release rates is the first step, and a crucial step, in consequence analysis. When the release is from an isolated volume of vessel and/or piping, the release rate decreases with time. There is often debate about what equivalent hole sizes should be used for a consequence study, and usually a range of hole sizes (3–4 values) is examined.This paper shows the effect of hole size on the ultimate impact of hydrocarbon releases for several scenarios and the methodology to select them. The impact depends on the intensity and exposure time. The intensity for a fire is the thermal radiation level, and that for an unignited release is the gas concentration. As the release rate decreases with time, so does the intensity. Probit functions describe the probability of a given impact based on the time-varying intensity. For a number of example scenarios, the predictions show that the worst-case hole size is an intermediate hole size, i.e., the impact goes through a maximum with increasing hole size. For smaller holes, the event is small enough that its impact is low even though the duration is long. For larger holes, the initial event is large but decreases so rapidly that the impact is low. For the intermediate hole, the event is large enough, and the duration long enough, to cause the greatest impact.This consequence study was made evaluating hole sizes with diameters between 5 and 400 mm in a fixed volume upstream process vessel. Worst case scenario consequence predictions for fire damages, effects on people and toxic releases were determined to be somewhat different for different hole sizes. However, hole sizes in the 30 mm–90 mm range seems to have the highest impact in dry gas service.     

Revised fire consequence models for offshore quantitative risk assessment

Offshore oil and gas platforms are well known for their compact geometry, high degree of congestion, limited ventilation and difficult escape routes. A small mishap under such conditions can quickly escalate into a catastrophe. Among all the accidental process-related events occurring offshore, fire is the most frequently reported. It is, therefore, necessary to study the behavior of fires and quantity the hazards posed by them in order to complete a detailed quantitative risk assessment. While there are many consequence models available to predict fire hazards-varying from point source models to highly complex computational fluid dynamic models—only a few have been validated for the unique conditions found offshore.

In this paper, we have considered fire consequence modeling as a suite of sub-models such as individual fire models, radiation model, overpressure model, smoke and toxicity models and human impact models. This comprehensive suite of models was then revised by making the following modifications: (i) fire models: existing fire models have been reviewed and the ones most suitable for offshore conditions were selected; (ii) overpressure impact model: a model has been developed to quantify the overpressure effects from fires to investigate the possible damage from the hot combustion gases released in highly confined compartments; (iii) radiation model: instead of a point/area model, a multipoint grid-based model has been adopted for better modeling and analysis of radiation heat flux consequences. A comparison of the performance of the revised models with the ones used in a commercial software package for offshore risk assessment was also carried out and is discussed in the paper.     

Environmental consequence analysis for resource depletion

Resource depletion is of concern to both present and future generations in terms of access to resources. It is a prominent impact category within life cycle assessment (LCA) and sustainability assessment. This paper examines existing resource depletion approaches and indicators in the context of natural gas depletion, and their limitations in modelling the wider environmental consequences of resource consumption. Some existing models assume substitution of scarce fossil fuels with an alternative fossil fuel or mix, but do not consider all of the subsequent change in impacts. An additional methodology is proposed to measure the impact changes when fossil fuel substitution occurs as a result of scarcity. The methodology will demonstrate the effect of resource scarcity for individual processes but also multiple processes which operate at different levels of resource consumption with varying degrees of impacts. The methodology is applied to a scarcity situation of natural gas in Australia, where black coal is substituted for gas. It is first applied to natural gas consumed for electricity generation only. In the second case, the methodology is applied to the substitution of natural gas for both electricity generation and hydrogen production. The varying impacts on emissions to air and water, together with solid waste generation and water depletion, as a result of the substitution are used to reflect the consequences of fossil fuel depletion. The indicators also provide information on the impacts of substitution in each product, thus enabling users to prioritise products based on the impacts produced during natural gas allocation.     

Machine learning based quantitative consequence prediction models for toxic dispersion casualty

Incidental release of toxic chemicals can pose extreme danger to life in the vicinity. Therefore, it is crucial for emergency responders, plant operators, and safety professionals to have a fast and accurate prediction to evaluate possible toxic dispersion life-threatening consequences. In this work, a toxic chemical dispersion casualty database that contains 450 leak scenarios of 18 toxic chemicals is constructed to develop a machine learning based quantitative property-consequence relationship (QPCR) model to estimate the affected area caused by toxic chemical release within a certain death rate. The results show that the developed QPCR model can predict the toxic dispersion casualty range with root mean square error of maximum distance, minimum distance, and maximum width less than 0.2, 0.4, and 0.3, which indicates that the constructed model has satisfying accuracy in predicting toxic dispersion ranges under different lethal consequences. The model can be further expanded to accommodate more toxic chemicals and leaking scenarios.     

BLEVE事故后果分析软件化实现

对BLEVE的三种主要灾害模式,火球辐射、超压以及碎片抛射进行了研究,研究总结了各自的灾害计算模型及相关的伤害准则,采用STATLSTICA6．0对火球直径、持续时间进行了重新拟合,给出了爆炸能量计算模型中不确定性参数的选取方法,对碎片抛射的各个不确定性参数的分布进行了总结。根据总结得出的模型,采用VB6．0编制了BLEVE事故后果分析软件,并分别以球罐、丙烷的热BLEVE算例及卧罐、二氧化碳的冷BLEVE算例对软件的计算功能进行演示。     

Advanced multi-perspective computer simulation as a tool for reliable consequence analysis

Major accidents involving hazardous materials are a crucial issue for the chemical and process industries. Many accidental events taken place in the past showed that dangerous substances may pose a severe threat for people and property. Aiming at loss prevention, a series of actions have been instituted through international regulations concerning hazardous installations safety preparedness. These actions involve efficient land-use planning, safety studies execution, as well as emergency response planning drawing up. A key factor for the substantial consideration of the above is the effective prediction of possible accident forms and their consequences, for the estimation of which, a number of empirical models have been developed so far. However, (semi-)empirical models present certain deficiencies and obey to certain assumptions, thus leading to results of reduced accuracy. Another approach that could be used for this purpose and it is discussed in this work, is the utilization of advanced computational fluid dynamics (CFD) techniques in certain accident forms modeling. In particular, composite CFD-based models were developed for the simulation of several characteristic accident forms involving isothermal and non-isothermal heavy gas dispersion, confined and unconfined explosion in environment of complex geometry, as well as flammable cloud fire. The simulation cases were referred to real-scale trials allowing us to conclude about the validity of the quantitative results. Comparisons of the computational predictions with the experimental observations showed that obtained results were in good agreement with the experimental ones, whereas the evaluation of statistical performance measures proved the simulations to be statistically valid.     

CNG加气站事故后果分析方法研究

根据CNG加气站系统运行的实际情况,将CNG加气站中易发生泄漏的设备分为管道阀门、挠性连接器、压缩机、储气设备、放散管5类。建立了CNG泄漏的事件树,将CNG加气站的事故后果类型概括为喷射火、闪火、蒸气云爆炸。总结了CNG加气站事故后果的计算模型,采用美国环保局的ALOHA软件确定事故后果的影响范围。综合运用该两种方法对喷射火和蒸气云爆炸的事故案例进行对比研究,结果表明,计算结果基本一致。该两种事故后果分析方法为CNG加气站安全管理和安全规划提供依据。     

Methodology for computer aided fuzzy fault tree analysis

Probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) is a comprehensive, structured and logical analysis method aimed at identifying and assessing risks of complex process systems. PRA uses fault tree analysis (FTA) as a tool to identify basic causes leading to an undesired event, to represent logical dependency of these basic causes in leading to the event, and finally to calculate the probability of occurrence of this event.To conduct a quantitative fault tree analysis, one needs a fault tree along with failure data of the basic events (components). Sometimes it is difficult to have an exact estimation of the failure rate of individual components or the probability of occurrence of undesired events due to a lack of sufficient data. Further, due to imprecision in basic failure data, the overall result may be questionable. To avoid such conditions, a fuzzy approach may be used with the FTA technique. This reduces the ambiguity and imprecision arising out of subjectivity of the data.This paper presents a methodology for a fuzzy based computer-aided fault tree analysis tool. The methodology is developed using a systematic approach of fault tree development, minimal cut sets determination and probability analysis. Further, it uses static and dynamic structuring and modeling, fuzzy based probability analysis and sensitivity analysis.This paper also illustrates with a case study the use of a fuzzy weighted index and cutsets importance measure in sensitivity analysis (for system probabilistic risk analysis) and design modification.     

人群拥挤踩踏事故后果微观建模及模拟分析

针对人群拥挤踩踏事故风险理论(4阶段)中传统数学模型难以解决的定量问题,分析大型公共场所高密度拥挤人群中的个体受力.依据牛顿第二定律和经典"社会力"模型对人群中的个体受力进行建模.本文提出了引起人群拥挤踩踏事故后果即人员伤亡的"拥挤力"的概念,并在"磁场力"模型基础上依据动量定理构建了拥挤人群中的个体受力微观模拟模型.基于此微观模拟模型并结合多智能体技术开发了人群拥挤踩踏事故模拟系统,对正常及紧急状况下的奥运赛场出口人群疏散模拟的结果表明,该模拟系统不仅能够直观地表示人群拥挤踩踏事故后果,而且还可通过滞留人数随疏散时间的变化情况了解人群疏散状况.该微观模拟模型及模拟系统对大型公共建筑的性能化设计、人群安全疏散及管理等有指导意义.     

An innovative and comprehensive approach for the consequence analysis of liquid hydrogen vessel explosions

Hydrogen is one of the most suitable solutions to replace hydrocarbons in the future. Hydrogen consumption is expected to grow in the next years. Hydrogen liquefaction is one of the processes that allows for increase of hydrogen density and it is suggested when a large amount of substance must be stored or transported. Despite being a clean fuel, its chemical and physical properties often arise concerns about the safety of the hydrogen technologies. A potentially critical scenario for the liquid hydrogen (LH₂) tanks is the catastrophic rupture causing a consequent boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE), with consequent overpressure, fragments projection and eventually a fireball. In this work, all the BLEVE consequence typologies are evaluated through theoretical and analytical models. These models are validated with the experimental results provided by the BMW care manufacturer safety tests conducted during the 1990's. After the validation, the most suitable methods are selected to perform a blind prediction study of the forthcoming LH₂ BLEVE experiments of the Safe Hydrogen fuel handling and Use for Efficient Implementation (SH₂IFT) project. The models drawbacks together with the uncertainties and the knowledge gap in LH₂ physical explosions are highlighted. Finally, future works on the modelling activity of the LH₂ BLEVE are suggested.     

Development and applications of CPR—A 3D consequence analysis software for educational use

In this research, a simple package called CPR 2.0 software was developed according to the algorithm suggested by AIChE/CCPS and implemented using Compaq Visual Fortran (CVF 6.6) programming language and METFOR 3.0 Fortran 90/95 Library. This multipurpose software includes nine sets of programs that can be used in combination or separately to calculate physical, effect, and vulnerability consequences; their results can also be easily processed into different tables and figures. A set of three-dimensional (3D) gas release contours with different concentration isosurfaces and transient dispersion states floating above a local map can be easily observed from different angles in order to facilitate emergency response planning and educational training. The software has been benchmarked with CHEMS-PLUS software via a methane release case and the result from the two packages is compared and analyzed.     

有毒气体在不同泄漏模式下的事故后果分析

为研究氯化氢气体在不同泄漏模式下泄漏扩散的影响范围,基于DEGADIS重气模型,使用ALOHA软件对罐体泄漏和管道泄漏进行了模拟研究.对于罐体泄漏的小孔连续泄漏、大孔有限时间泄漏、瞬时泄漏3种模式,在相同泄漏量和同等气象条件下,氯化氢体积分数随距泄漏源距离的增加而降低,但瞬时泄漏的影响范围最大,且扩散速度最快.对于管道泄漏的无限源和有限源泄漏模式,前者的影响范围高于后者,但与泄漏量不成正比例增加.通过比较可知,罐体的瞬时泄漏和管道的无限源泄漏模式具有较大的危害区域.     

氯化氢事故性泄漏扩散的后果模拟分析

通过对1起BOC(叔丁氧羰基)生产中误操作造成的氯化氢泄漏事故的后果模拟分析,说明扩散模型与后果伤害模型对预测事故伤亡后果和人员应急响应策略选择的作用.首先确定事故中氯化氢的泄漏量和泄漏方式,采用高斯烟团模型模拟扩散过程,利用室内外换气公式,得出室内外氯化氢气体质量浓度随时间变化的关系,然后结合概率函数法得出室内外暴露剂量以及概率变量随时间变化的关系.模拟结果表明,室内外的概率变量都小于-7,因此人员死亡概率为0,与事故实际造成的后果基本相符.因此,选择相应的扩散模型与后果伤害模型对毒气泄漏事故进行后果模拟分析,能定量确定泄漏事故对特定范围内造成的危险程度,预测事故伤亡后果.     

危险化学品事故后果计算过程探讨

基于事故后果的风险评估方法是国内外进行安全评价和土地使用安全规划的基础方法之一。本文基于危险化学品种类和危险装置类型,对可能发生的事故情景和相应事故后果计算模型的选择方法进行了阐述,针对易燃、易爆、有毒危险化学品的事故后果计算过程进行了系统分析。最后对本文提出的事故后果分析方法进行了实例应用。本文的研究成果可为安全评价或土地使用安全规划等工作的开展提供必要的参考。     

埋地输氢管道泄漏爆炸事故后果模拟分析

为了输氢管道的安全建设与运营,基于计算流体力学FLACS软件,模拟了埋地输氢管道在半受限空间内的泄漏爆炸事故后果,探讨了泄漏孔径、泄漏时长、输氢压力和环境风速对爆炸事故后果的影响规律,并得出相应的危险区域。结果表明:泄漏孔径、输氢压力和最大爆炸超压均与危险区域呈正相关关系,泄漏时长对事故后果几乎无影响;随着输氢压力的增大,危险区域受建筑物和风速的影响更为明显,在建筑物附近形成了狭长的危险区域带;最大爆炸超压和危险区域随环境风速的增大均呈现出先增大后减小的趋势。     

Integration of fuzzy reliability analysis and consequence simulation to conduct risk assessment

Losses of containment within the natural gas network, located in most populated areas, could cause environmental damage, injuries, or even death. Accordingly, it is pivotal to adopt proper approaches to assess and mitigate the risk arising from potential losses. Within this context, it is required to exploit solid reliability and consequence analysis techniques. To this end, this paper presents a methodology established on the integration of a Fuzzy Bayesian Network and consequence simulation. The Bayesian Network is more flexible and realistic than classic approaches because it can consider conditional probabilities and prior information. Furthermore, Leaky Noisy-OR Gates are exploited to allow an easier filling of the Conditional Probability Tables. This task is performed through expert elicitation, adopting Intuitionistic Fuzzy Set Theory and Similarity Aggregation Method. Finally, the severity analysis is performed via a software, named Safeti, which provides an accurate evaluation of the consequences. To show the applicability of the framework, a pressure regulator of a Natural Gas Regulating and Metering Station is considered as case study. The proposed approach can assist asset managers in evaluating the risk arising from the operations, and, accordingly, it can guide them in making maintenance-related decisions to assure the safety of the operations.     

Investigative consequence analysis: A case study research of beirut explosion accident

Around 15:00 GMT on August 4th, an explosion occurred in the warehouse facility storing Ammonium Nitrate (AN) at Beirut port, Lebanon. The explosion resulted in more than 178 fatalities and injured more than 6500 people, and also left an estimated 300,000 people homeless and registered as an equivalent to a 3.3 magnitude earth quake. The accident was considered to be the largest of its kind and the most severe anthropological disaster of the decade, the financial loss the nation was subjected to post the explosion was estimated to be around $ 15 billion as informed by the governor. The storage conditions of ammonium nitrate at Beirut port is not definitively known to anyone, and there is no documentation provided so far from the authorities regarding the same. This work focuses on the investigation & consequence analysis of the explosion using TNT equivalent approach. The overpressure and the impulse obtained from TNT calculations are used in probit models to assess the damages caused on human beings and structures. The results obtained in this investigative approach are then utilized to provide an analytical inference relative to the damage proxy map reported by the advance rapid imaging analysis team from NASA. Also, this work examines the existing standards, fire safety measures and legal regulations for ammonium nitrate facilities in the region. AN explosion during storage like other fire and explosion accidents are definitely preventable owing to the technological advancements and developments to prevent or extinguish controllable fires. The significance of this work relates to the methods for calculation of consequences of explosion that are happening due to the storage of highly hazardous explosive materials in excessive quantities and insists the necessity of incorporating adequate safety measures while storing such reactive and hazardous materials.     

基于Fluent的埋地原油管道泄漏事故后果分析

埋地输油管道一旦发生泄漏,一方面会造成土壤污染,另一方面当原油泄漏量过多时会上渗到地面形成油池,进而引发池火灾,对人员、环境、设备均会造成危害。为了研究埋地输油管道泄漏事故的后果,为事故救援及处理提供参考,提出了一种针对此类事故的土壤污染、池火灾后果定量分析方法。方法以Fluent软件为工具模拟原油被点燃前的泄漏扩散情况,分析原油在土壤及地面上的扩散规律及范围,并结合危害模型得到池火灾造成的热辐射危害范围。利用该方法对不同管道压力和泄漏孔径的6种工况下的事故进行了分析,结果表明,原油管道泄漏时的压力及泄漏孔径对原油扩散速度影响较大,进而影响避免事故的难易程度。