Speciation of non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHCs) from anthropogenic sources in Beirut,Lebanon

The chemical composition of emissions from the different anthropogenic sources of non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) is essential for modeling and source apportionment studies. The speciated profiles of major NMHC sources in Lebanon, including road transport, gasoline vapor, power generation, and solvent use were established. Field sampling have been carried out by canisters in 2012. Around 67 NMHC (C2 to C9) were identified and quantified by using a gas chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector. Typical features of the roadway emissions included high percentages of isopentane, butane, toluene, xylenes, ethylene, and ethyne. Gasoline evaporation profiles included high percentage of the C4–C5 saturated hydrocarbons reaching 59 %. The main compounds of the power generator emissions are related to combustion. Toluene and C8–C9 aromatics were the most abundant species in emissions from paint applications. Finally, the impact of the use of region-specific source profile is tackled regarding the implication on air quality.     

Vertical distributions of non-methane hydrocarbons and halocarbons in the lower troposphere over northeast China

Vertical distributions of air pollutants are crucial for understanding the key processes of atmospheric transport and for evaluating chemical transport models. In this paper, we present measurements of non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHCs) and halocarbons obtained from an intensive aircraft study over northeast (NE) China in summer 2007. Most compounds exhibited a typical negative profile of decreasing mixing ratios with increasing altitude, although the gradients differed with different species. Three regional plumes with enhanced VOC mixing ratios were discerned and characterized. An aged plume transported from the northern part of the densely populated North China Plain (NCP; i.e. Beijing–Tianjin area) showed relatively higher levels of HCFC-22, 1,2-dichloroethane (1,2-DCE) and toluene. In comparison, the plume originating from Korea had higher abundances of CFC-12, tetrachloroethene (C₂Cl₄) and methyl chloride (CH₃Cl), while regional air masses from NE China contained more abundant light alkanes. By comparing these results with the earlier PEM-West B (1994) and TRACE-P (2001) aircraft measurements, continuing declining trends were derived for methyl chloroform (CH₃CCl₃), tetrachloromethane (CCl₄) and C₂Cl₄ over the greater China–northwestern Pacific region, indicating the accomplishment of China in reducing these compounds under the Montreal protocol. However, the study also provided evidence for the continuing emissions of several halocarbons in China in 2007, such as CFCs (mainly from materials in stock) and HCFCs.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the bulk precipitation and surface waters of Northern Greece

Bulk (wet and dry) precipitation and surface water sampling was undertaken in the main plain of central Macedonia in Northern Greece. Fourteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) included in the US EPA's priority pollutant list were analysed. The concentrations determined in bulk precipitation were in general within the range of values worldwide reported. Concentrations were highest in the cold months. Deposition fluxes of PAHs were of the same order of magnitude as reported data. The greatest values were found when high concentrations of PAHs in precipitation coincided with large precipitation amounts. The concentrations of PAHs in surface waters (main rivers, tributaries, ditches, etc) were in general lower than those in bulk precipitation, and among the lowest reported for European rivers, excepting Np and Ph. Bulk deposition and domestic effluents are suggested as being the main PAH sources into surface waters.     

Lidar and satellite retrieval of dust aerosols over the Azores during SOFIA/ASTEX

The synergy between active (airborne lidar) and passive (Meteosat) sensors is achieved with the help of a numerical transport model (TM2z) to derive optical properties of Saharan dust during a long range transport over the Azores. Measurements were taken in June 1992 during the surface of the ocean, fluxes and interaction with the atmosphere campaign, which took place during the Atlantic stratocumulus transition experiment. The dust source is identified to be in north Morocco from a TM2z back-trajectory analysis. Lidar observations over the Azores show that the dust is maintained in multiple thin layers (few hundred meters) up to 5 km altitude after a 4-day transport. Horizontal gradients are less marked, with a typical scale of variation of about 5 km. Lidar inversions yield dust optical thicknesses from 0.1 to 0.16 mainly due to two layers centered at 1.3 and 3.7 km. Since the weather was extremely cloudy over this region, the dust plume was not observable on the coincident Meteosat image. We thus processed the image taken two days earlier that clearly shows a dust plume between Azores and Spain. The Meteosat inversion was constrained by using the airborne lidar measurements in the marine boundary layer. The retrieved dust optical thicknesses are in good agreement with that retrieved from the lidar. Coherence of both lidar and radiometry measurements suggests that such a combined analysis is promising for retrieving the optical thickness of elevated dust layers as well as their spatial extent outside the source region even under cloudy conditions.     

Size-resolved,real-time measurement of water-insoluble aerosols in metropolitan Atlanta during the summer of 2004

During the month of August 2004, the size-resolved number concentration of water-insoluble aerosols (WIA) from 0.25 to 2.0 μm was measured in real-time in the urban center of Atlanta, GA. Simultaneous measurements were performed for the total aerosol size distribution from 0.1 to 2.0 μm, the elemental and organic carbon mass concentration, the aerosol absorption coefficient, and the aerosol scattering coefficient at a dry (RH=30%) humidity. The mean aerosol number concentration in the size range 0.1–2.0 μm was found to be 360±175 cm⁻³, but this quantity fluctuated significantly on time scales of less than one hour and ranged from 25 to 1400 cm⁻³ during the sample period. The mean WIA concentration (0.25–2.0 μm) was 13±7 cm⁻³ and ranged from 1 to 60 cm⁻³. The average insoluble fraction in the size range 0.25–2.0 μm was found to be 4±2.5% with a range of 0.3–38%. The WIA population was found to follow a consistent diurnal pattern throughout the month with concentration maxima concurring with peaks in vehicular traffic flow. WIA concentration also responded to changes in meteorological conditions such as boundary layer depth and precipitation events. The temporal variability of the absorption coefficient followed an identical pattern to that of WIA and ranged from below the detection limit to 55 Mm⁻¹ with a mean of 8±6 Mm⁻¹. The WIA concentration was highly correlated with both the absorption coefficient and the elemental carbon mass concentration, suggesting that WIA measurements are dominated by fresh emissions of elemental carbon. For both the total aerosol and the WIA size distributions, the maximum number concentration was observed at the smallest sizes; however the WIA size distribution also exhibited a peak at 0.45 μm which was not observed in the total population. Over 60% of the particles greater than 1.0 μm were observed to be insoluble in the water sampling stream used by this instrumentation. Due to the refractive properties of black carbon, it is highly unlikely that these particles could be composed of elemental carbon, suggesting a crustal source for super-micron WIA.     

Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons in different sized aerosols over the Mediterranean Sea: Occurrence and origin

Marine aerosols were collected using a five-stage cascade impactor during the PHYCEMED II cruise in the Western Mediterranean Sea (October 1983). Their composition in aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons (HCs) was analyzed, representing the first time that concentrations of polynuclear aromatic HCs (PAH) are reported in relation to particle size for aerosols of remote marine areas. The HC concentrations were found to be dependent on the origin of the air masses. They were higher for air coming from North European countries than for air originating in the Atlantic and the South of Spain. The concentrations range between 7 and 14 ng m⁻³for n-alkanes and between 0.2 and 0.4 ng m⁻³for total PAH. Based on molecular criteria, several sources for these HCs have been identified: continental higher plant waxes, petroleum and pyrolysis (namely coal combustion and vehicular exhausts). Mass medium equivalent diameters (MMED) for the naturally derived n-alkanes are in the 1.79-2.53 μm range, indicating an origin related with the emission of large particles from higher plant waxes or from soil dusts. In contrast, MMED for the anthropogenic HCs, both aliphatic and aromatic, are smaller than the micron, suggesting initial emission of PAH through pyrolytic processes in the vapor phase followed by condensation onto larger sub-μm particles.     

Contamination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in microlayer and subsurface waters along Alexandria coast,Egypt

The residues of seven polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) pollutants in microlayer and subsurface seawater samples collected from Alexandria coast, Egypt, were analyzed by gas chromatography–electron-impact mass spectrometry-selected ion monitoring mode (GC–MS-SIM). The pollutants studied were, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, chrysene and benzo[a]pyrene. Total PAH levels in microlayer ranged from 103 to 523 ng/l, while it ranged in subsurface samples from 13 to 120 ng/l. The Western Harbor location recorded the highest level of PAHs pollutant over all the other location for both subsurface and microlayer waters. The two major PAHs in microlayer water at the Western Harbor were fluorene and phenanthrene, making up 27% and 20% of the total PAHs, while the two major PAHs in subsurface water at the Eastern Harbor were phenanthrene and fluoranthene recording up 21% each of the total PAHs. The total PAH levels were generally in the nano-gram per liter for microlayer and subsurface seawater samples. The dominant PAHs in both subsurface and microlayer samples were fluoranthene, pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene. The microlayer enrichment factor at Alexandria’s Mediterranean coast was ranged from 29 for fluorene to 3 for phenanthrene and benzo[a]pyrene which showed PAHs concentration in the microlayer with an average of five times more than the total PAH in the subsurface samples.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in rainwater and surface waters of Lake Maggiore, a subalpine lake in Northern Italy

Fourteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were measured in surface waters and precipitation inputs to Lake Maggiore, a subalpine lake in Northern Italy, from July 2003 to January 2004. Particulate and dissolved phases in surface water and rain samples were determined. Analyses of PAHs were performed using XAD-2 resin to isolate the dissolved PAHs and subsequent extraction by accelerated solvent extraction (ASE). Both the dissolved and particulate phase PAH patterns in surface water and rainwater samples were dominated by the low molecular weight compounds (e.g., phenanthrene, fluoranthene and pyrene). More than 85% of PAHs in surface waters and 72% of PAHs in rainwater were associated to the dissolved phase. The SigmaPAH concentrations in surface waters (particulate and dissolved phases) were 0.584 +/- 0.033 ng l(-1), 2.9 +/- 0.312 ng l(-1) and in rainwater (particulate and dissolved phases) 27.5 +/- 2 ng l(-1), 75.4 +/- 9 ng l(-1), respectively. Temporal variability of PAH concentrations in rain and surface water samples were observed, with higher concentrations in November and December, coinciding with the largest precipitation amounts. The comparison of PAH signatures in rainwater and surface waters seems to indicate that wet deposition (2.5-41 microg m(-2) month(-1)) is the main source of PAH contamination into surface waters of Lake Maggiore.     

Source apportionment of ambient non-methane hydrocarbons in Hong Kong: application of a principal component analysis/absolute principal component scores (PCA/APCS) receptor model

Receptor-oriented source apportionment models are often used to identify sources of ambient air pollutants and to estimate source contributions to air pollutant concentrations. In this study, a PCA/APCS model was applied to the data on non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHCs) measured from January to December 2001 at two sampling sites: Tsuen Wan (TW) and Central & Western (CW) Toxic Air Pollutants Monitoring Stations in Hong Kong. This multivariate method enables the identification of major air pollution sources along with the quantitative apportionment of each source to pollutant species. The PCA analysis identified four major pollution sources at TW site and five major sources at CW site. The extracted pollution sources included vehicular internal engine combustion with unburned fuel emissions, use of solvent particularly paints, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or natural gas leakage, and industrial, commercial and domestic sources such as solvents, decoration, fuel combustion, chemical factories and power plants. The results of APCS receptor model indicated that 39% and 48% of the total NMHCs mass concentrations measured at CW and TW were originated from vehicle emissions, respectively. 32% and 36.4% of the total NMHCs were emitted from the use of solvent and 11% and 19.4% were apportioned to the LPG or natural gas leakage, respectively. 5.2% and 9% of the total NMHCs mass concentrations were attributed to other industrial, commercial and domestic sources, respectively. It was also found that vehicle emissions and LPG or natural gas leakage were the main sources of C(3)-C(5) alkanes and C(3)-C(5) alkenes while aromatics were predominantly released from paints. Comparison of source contributions to ambient NMHCs at the two sites indicated that the contribution of LPG or natural gas at CW site was almost twice that at TW site. High correlation coefficients (R(2) > 0.8) between the measured and predicted values suggested that the PCA/APCS model was applicable for estimation of sources of NMHCs in ambient air.     

Springtime depletion of tropospheric ozone,gaseous elemental mercury and non-methane hydrocarbons in the European Arctic,and its relation to atmospheric transport

Using a trajectory climatology for the period 1992–2001 we have examined how seasonal changes in transport cause changes in the concentrations of tropospheric ozone (O₃), gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) and non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHCs) observed at the Mt. Zeppelin station, Ny-Ålesund (78.9°N, 11.9°E). During April–June O₃ depletion events were frequently observed in connection with air transport across the Arctic Basin. The O₃ loss was most pronounced in air masses advected close to the surface. This result supports the idea that the O₃ depletion reactions take place in the lowermost part of the atmosphere in the central Arctic Basin. A strong positive correlation between springtime O₃ depletion events and the oxidation of GEM to divalent mercury was found. During air mass advection from Siberia, the Barents Sea and the Norwegian Sea the strongest correlation was observed during April–May, whereas air masses originating from the Canadian Arctic and the central Arctic areas showed the highest O₃–GEM correlation in May–June. We suggest that this 1-month lag could either be due to the position of the marginal ice zone or temperature differences between the northwestern and northeastern air masses. In connection with springtime O₃ depletion events low concentrations of some NMHCs, especially ethane and ethyne, were observed, indicating that both bromine (ethyne oxidant) and chlorine radicals (ethane oxidant) are present in the Arctic atmosphere during spring. In winter, negative correlations between O₃ and NMHCs were found in connection with air transport from Europe and Siberia, which we interpret as O₃ destruction taking place in industrially contaminated plumes.     

Distribution and sources of hydrocarbons in surface sediments of Gemlik Bay (Marmara Sea, Turkey)

Seabottom sediments from Gemlik Bay, one of the most polluted spots in SW Marmara Sea, were analyzed for parent polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The concentration of 14 PAH compounds in sediment samples collected from 61 locations are distributed in a broad spectrum from low to very high concentration levels (50.8-13482 ng g-1). No significant correlation was found between summation operatorPAHs and organic carbon content while summation operatorPAHs increase slightly with silt/clay ratio. Therefore the distribution and concentrations of PAHs would be determined more by direct input, rather than by the type of sediment found locally. The most polluted areas are distributed nearshore eastern (Gemlik) and southern (Kursunlu, Mudanya and Trilye) coasts which are mainly influenced by rapid ecotourism development, direct discharges from rivers, surface run-off and drainage from port areas, domestic and industrial effluent discharges through outfalls and various contaminants from ships. Special PAH compound ratios, such as Phe/Anth, Flu/Py, B[a]A/Chry; LMWPAH/HMWPAH; Per/; Per/summation operatorPAH; Per/summation operator(penta-aromatics) and Flu/(Py+Flu), were calculated to evaluate different hydrocarbon origins and their relative importance. Pyrolytic activity is dominant along the highly-populated eastern and southern coasts. Meanwhile, petrogenic activity mixed with pyrolytic activity is a matter of fact in front of the main industrial-tourism ports and anchoring areas as well. Higher concentration of perylene are distributed along the mostly polluted eastern and southern coastal areas, however, the concentrations of perylene relative to the penta-aromatic isomers are dominant especially in the northern and deepest sectors of the bay, indicating diagenetic origin for the presence of perylene.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface sediments of Liaodong Bay,Bohai Sea,China

Materials and methods  

The levels and possible sources of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were investigated in the surface sediments of Liaodong Bay, Bohai Sea, China.     

On the possibility for separate determination of pyrolyzed products (soot and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) in aerosols by EPR spectrometry

The present paper demonstrates the applicability of EPR spectrometry for separate estimation of soot (EC) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in aerosols. The content of EC is obtained directly because of their paramagnetic properties whereas diamagnetic PAH, adsorbed on the soot, are converted to paramagnetic forms by oxidation over silica/alumina catalyst. In order to fulfill the goal of our study at this stage only few samples of aerosols are investigated after being collected at four different locations: near and distant to motorway, office and cafeteria. The obtained results show that the quantities of soot and PAH in all cases are μg m⁻³. However, their content varies depending on the place of sample collection. The following order of decreasing soot quantity is found: motorway>urban air>cafeteria>office whereas for PAH the order is cafeteria≅motorway>urban air>office. The obtained results are discussed in the light of the pollution sources at the sampling places.     

Sunlight-driven environmental photodegradation of 2-chlorobiphenyl (PCB-1) in surface waters: kinetic study and mathematical simulations

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a family of highly toxic, resistant, and persistent organic pollutants, among which 2-chlorobiphenyl (PCB-1) is...     

Heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls in surface sediments of the Naples harbour (southern Italy)

The Naples's harbour is one of the largest and most important commercial and tourist port of the Mediterranean basin. It is located on the southeast coast of Italy and receives industrial and municipal wastewaters from the city of Naples. Due to its social and economic impact, a comprehensive assessment of levels and sources of contamination of bottom sediments in this area of the Mediterranean basin is essential to identify potential danger due to mobilization of contaminants produced by managing of the same sediments. In this study, superficial sediments collected from 189 sampling sites were analyzed for grain size, heavy metals (Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, V, Zn, Co, Sn, Cd, Hg, As, Al and Fe), 16 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and perylene and 38 individual polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners. Compared to the estimated local background, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Sn and Hg show enrichment factors >3 and only Hg evidences a median value higher than the NOAA (effects range - median) guidelines. Principal component analysis allowed us to clearly discriminate two areas mainly affected by heavy metals contamination and influenced by different sources related to industrial, commercial and/or urban activities. Priority PAHs are predominantly represented by three-five-ring compounds with concentrations ranging between 9 and 31774 ng g(-1) and frequently higher than the NOAA ER-M index. A prevalent pyrolitic origin of PAH was assessed on the basis of the relative abundance of the different congeners and selected isomer ratios. The concentrations of PCBs, as sum of the 38 congeners, ranged from 1 to 899 ng g(-1), with a predominance of highly chlorinated (tetra- and penta-chlorobiphenyls) congeners. WHO-TEQ values, calculated for the PCDD-like PCB congeners, suggest a relatively high level of toxicity. Generally, the concentration of PAHs and PCBs were higher near the sites of intense industrial, shipping and/or commercial activities suggesting a direct influence of these sources on the pollutant distribution patterns.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in wastewater, WWTPs effluents and in the recipient waters of Beijing, China

In this study, surface water samples from the Wenyu River and the North Canal, effluent from major wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Beijing, and wastewater from open sewers that discharge directly into the river system were collected and analyzed for 16 priority USEPA polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Concentrations of these 16 PAHs ranged from 193 to 1790 ng/L in river surface waters, 245 to 404 ng/L in WWTP effluents, and 431 to 2860 ng/L in the wastewater from the small sewers. The WWTP effluent was the main contributor of dissolved PAHs to the river, while wastewater from the small sewers contributed both dissolved and suspended particulate matter-associated PAH to the river as indicated by the high dissolved organic carbon and suspended particulate matter contents in the wastewater. Although the flow from each open sewer was small, a PAH discharge as high as 44 kg/year could occur into the river from these types of sewers. This amount was equivalent to about 22 % of the PAH loads discharged into the North Canal downstream from Beijing, whereas the remainder was mainly released by the major WWTPs in Beijing.     

Environmental assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface sediments of the Santander Bay,Northern Spain

Samples of intertidal surface sediments (0-2 cm) were collected in 17 stations of the Santander Bay, Cantabric Sea, Northern Spain. The concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 16, were analysed by HPLC and MS detection. Surface sediments show a good linear correlation among the parameters of the experimental organic matter evaluation, where total carbon (TC) and loss on ignition (LOI) are approximately 2.5 and 5 times total organic carbon (TOC). A wide range of TOC from 0.08% to 4.1%, and a broad distribution of the sum of sigma16PAHs, from 0.02 to 344.6 microg/g d.w., which can be correlated by an exponential equation to the TOC, has been identified. A qualitative relationship may be established between the industrial input along the rivers and the concentration of sigma6PAHs in the sediments of the estuaries: Boo estuary (8404-4631 microg/g OC), Solia-San Salvador estuaries (305-113 microg/g OC) and Cubas estuary (31-32 microg/g OC). This work shows a dramatic change in the spatial distribution in the concentration of PAHs of intertidal surface sediments. The left edge of the Bay has the main traffic around the city and the major source of PAHs is from combustion processes and estuarine inputs, leading to medium values of PAHs in the sediments; the right edge of the Bay has much lesser anthropogenic activities leading to lower values of PAHs in sediments. The distribution of individual PAHs in sediments varies widely depending on their structure and molecular weight; the 4-6 ring aromatics predominate in polluted sediments due to their higher persistence. The isomer ratio does not allow any clear identification of the PAHs origin. Environmental evaluation according to Dutch guidelines and consensus sediment quality guidelines based on ecotoxicological data leads to the same conclusion, sediments in the Santander Bay show a very different environmental quality depending on the spatial position from heavily polluted/medium effects to non-polluted/below threshold effects. These results indicate that local sources of PAHs, especially estuary discharges, lead to very different qualities of sediments in coastal zones, where traffic and industrial activities take place.     

Nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHC) in the Greater Munich Area/Germany

During several field campaigns in the years 1993–1997 quasi-continuous measurements of NMHC data were obtained at various locations (urban/suburban/rural) within the Greater Munich Area (GMA) by means of on-line gaschromatographic methods. Though limited to NMHC between C₆ and C₉ it comprises the first comprehensive data base for this region that features high temporal resolution. The results for the downtown area show relatively low NMHC values compared to other cities worldwide. Propene-eqivalent analysis suggests that aromatic compounds such as toluene and m & p-xylenes play a major role in the formation of urban photochemical smog in the GMA. Since aromatic compounds were found to be ubiquitous at all measurement sites (altogether 8 sites) the pattern of these NMHC were investigated thoroughly. The results suggest that aromatic compounds are most effective in the urban/rural transition zone where VOC-limitation of ozone formation can be expected.     

Spatial distribution of illicit drugs in surface waters of the natural park of Pego-Oliva Marsh (Valencia,Spain)

Background, aim and scope  

The Pego-Oliva Marsh is the second most important wetland in the Valencian Community (Spain). It is included in the RAMSAR agreement and represents one key point for migratory birds. Emerging contaminants from the human pressure, such as pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs and personal care product, are not included in the list of priority contaminants of the Water Framework Directive yet, and are neither monitored nor controlled. However, pollution of emerging contaminants can threaten the environment and even human health. In order to understand the status of the emerging contamination and recommend future rationalization of countermeasures, the occurrence of illicit drugs was investigated.     

Optical,chemical and physical properties of aerosols over the antarctic ice sheet

Multiwavelength optical measurements of atmospheric extinction and sky brightness in the solar aureole were made at Ross Island and at South Pole Station, Antarctica, to derive the column-integrated size distribution and mass loading of suspended aerosol. In addition, the composition and particle size distribution near the surface at South Pole, the Ross Ice Shelf and from the summit of Mt Erebus volcano were derived by electron microscopic analysis and X-ray spectrometry.The aerosol over the ice sheet has a bimodal size distribution with modal radii in dn/dr at < 0.05 μm and at 0.14 ± 0.02 μm. The number concentration and mass loading for the large mode are 40cm⁻³ and 300 ng m⁻³, respectively, while the number concentration of particles in the smaller mode is ~ 10³ cm⁻³. The particles over the polar ice sheet are dominated by ammonium sulfate and hydrated droplets of sulfuric acid (60–80% by mass) although trace amounts of oceanic and crustal-derived material have also been detected. Aerosols on the Ross Ice Shelf are relatively large and consist mainly of crustal material, presumably from the exposed land within 20 km distance. Submicron particles collected at the fuming vent of Mt Erebus volcano contained 34% Cl, 22% K and only 18%S.The sulfur aerosol residing over the ice cap shows evidence of being produced by nucleation of trace sulfurbearing gases; the most likely source is organic compounds, possibly CS₂ and COS, released by the oceans. These compounds have long lifetimes (3 and 20, respectively), hence they can be transported to the central polar ice cap and converted to sulfates. It is estimated that downwelling air from the stratosphere is probably not an important source for sulfate particles. The rate of removal of particles to the snow and ice surface of the continentis −300 × 10⁻¹⁶g cm⁻²s⁻¹; ninety percent of the removal is by nucleation of snow flakes and ice crystals.