A meta‐analysis of the interrelationships between employee lateness,absenteeism, and turnover: Implications for models of withdrawal behavior

We meta‐analyzed the correlations between voluntary employee lateness, absenteeism, and turnover to (i) provide the most comprehensive estimates to date of the interrelationships between these withdrawal behaviors; (ii) test the viability of a withdrawal construct; and (iii) evaluate the evidence for competing models of the relationships between withdrawal behaviors (i.e., alternate forms, compensatory forms, independent forms, progression of withdrawal, and spillover model). Corrected correlations were .26 between lateness and absenteeism, .25 between absenteeism and turnover, and .01 between lateness and turnover. These correlations were even smaller in recent studies that had been carried out since the previous meta‐analyses of these relationships 15–20 years ago. The small‐to‐moderate intercorrelations are not supportive of a withdrawal construct that includes lateness, absenteeism, and turnover. These intercorrelations also rule out many of the competing models of the relationships between withdrawal behaviors, as many of the models assume all relationships will be positive, null, or negative. On the basis of path analyses using meta‐analytic data, the progression of withdrawal model garnered the most support. This suggests that lateness may moderately predict absenteeism and absenteeism may moderately predict turnover. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A time‐lagged investigation of the impact of coworker behavior on the effects of demographic dissimilarity

Although it is clear that coworker absenteeism, tardiness, and turnover can influence an employee's actions, scholars have yet to consider the impact of relational demography on the adoption of these behavioral norms. Inspired by social identity, situational strength, and attraction‐selection‐attrition theories, we proposed that individuals who differ from their coworkers in age, sex, or racioethnicity would feel threatened by their outnumbered status and subsequently motivated to be absent, tardy, or more likely to turnover. However, we expected coworker withdrawal behavior to moderate whether or not dissimilar personnel act on these desires. Results from hierarchical multilevel modeling analyses of data from 470 U.S. call center workers nested in 51 work groups revealed that racioethnic dissimilarity was positively related to time‐lagged changes in absenteeism and tardiness as well as heightened turnover likelihood. These effects emerged only among employees whose coworkers engaged in greater withdrawal behavior. Importantly, racioethnically dissimilar employees working in more permissive climates (i.e., those with high levels of coworker absenteeism, tardiness, or turnover) exhibited the greatest increases in absenteeism and tardiness over three months and had the highest supervisor‐rated turnover likelihood. Implications for diversity management are discussed. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of passive leadership on workplace incivility

In this article, we examine the effects of passive leadership on workplace incivility across two studies. Study 1 examines passive leadership–incivility relationships in a sample of employee–supervisor dyads, and Study 2 examines these relationships in a sample of employee–coworker dyads. Results from these studies suggest that passive leadership has a significant direct effect on behavioral incivility and an indirect effect through experienced incivility. Moreover, our results suggest that the relationship between experienced incivility and behavioral incivility is conditional on the level of passive leadership, such that the effect of experienced incivility on behavioral incivility is stronger at higher levels of passive leadership. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The impact of anger on creative process engagement: The role of social contexts

Drawing on the cognitive persistence perspective of creativity and conservation of resources theory, we investigated how 2 social contexts (perceived relationship conflict and coworker support for creativity) influence the relationship between anger and creative process engagement (CPE) in organizations. We tested our hypotheses using 422 daily surveys from 98 participants, collected over 5 consecutive workdays. The results show that anger perceived relationship conflict and coworker support for creativity interact to influence CPE. Specifically, when relationship conflict is high, the anger–CPE relationship is positive for employees who receive high coworker support for creativity, but negative for those who receive low coworker support for creativity. In contrast, when relationship conflict is low, the anger–CPE relationship is positive but does not differ at high versus low coworker support for creativity.     

“Killing them with kindness”? A study of service employees' responses to uncivil customers

Experiencing uncivil customers is a frequent reality for many people working in the service industry. Past research has established that dealing with uncivil customers can be distressing for employees and can sometimes lead them to engage in reciprocal, discourteous behavior. The purpose of our research is to delve deeper into the experience of customer incivility from the perspective of service employees in order to better understand the various ways in which they respond to customer incivility. We conducted 64 interviews with service employees across an array of occupations and developed a typology of responses to customer incivility. These responses fell into four categories based on the extent to which service employees' actions were intended to promote social harmony (and therefore could broadly be considered civil or uncivil), as well as their perceived agency in the situation. We describe how each response was associated with different interpersonal and intrapersonal consequences and explain the implications of our typology for management theory and practice.     

Differential effects of strain on two forms of work performance: individual employee sales and creativity

In this research, we develop and test a model of the links between psychological strain (subjective experiences of feeling conflict and tension) and work performance. Our model includes two types of strain (work strain and home strain) and two forms of work performance (quantity of individual sales performance and creativity). Thus we acknowledge the importance of work and non‐work sources of strain as well as the multidimensional nature of work performance. We test the proposed relationships with data collected over six months from a field sample of 195 hair salon stylists (personal service workers who interact directly with customers and provide services directly to individuals and not to other firms). Results demonstrate a positive relation between work strain and individual employee sales performance and a negative relation between home strain and employee creativity at work. Leader–member exchange moderated the effects of work strain and home strain on creativity. We discuss findings and implications, emphasizing multiple roles, the importance of differentiating types of strain, and the multidimensionality of work performance. We conclude by suggesting that strain may be particularly relevant to work performance of employees in jobs like those in our sample which are characterized by high social interdependence and low task interdependence. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

You cannot leave it at the office: Spillover and crossover of coworker incivility

This study examines the spillover and crossover effects of a specific chronic stressor, coworker incivility, on target marital satisfaction, partner marital satisfaction, and partner family‐to‐work conflict and on how the transmission of stress from the workplace to the family domain (as perceived by the target's partner) mediates these relationships. Using a matched data set of 190 job incumbents and their partners, the findings reveal that coworker incivility demonstrates both spillover and crossover effects on these outcomes important to the family. Evidence indicates that incivility targets do not leave the stress of incivility at work but instead bring it home to the family domain where it influences relationships with and outcomes of their partners. Implications of these findings and avenues for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Episodes of incivility between subordinates and supervisors: examining the role of self‐control and time with an interaction‐record diary study

Scholars have hypothesized that experiencing incivility not only negatively affects well‐being, but may even trigger further antisocial behavior. Previous research, however, has focused mainly on the relation between incivility and well‐being. Thus, little is known about the behavioral consequences of incivility. With this in mind, we conducted an interaction‐record diary study to examine whether supervisor incivility causes retaliatory incivility against the supervisor. Using the self‐control strength model as a framework, we further examined whether the target's trait (trait self‐control) and state (exhaustion) self‐regulatory capacities moderate this effect. In addition, we examined the role of time by testing the duration of the effect. When we analyzed the full data set, we found no support for our hypotheses. However, using a subset of the data in which the subsequent interaction happened on the same day as the prior interaction, our results showed that experiencing incivility predicted incivility in the subsequent interaction, but only when the time lag between the two interactions was short. Furthermore, in line with the assumption that self‐regulatory capacities are required to restrain a target from retaliatory responses, the effect was stronger when individuals were exhausted. In contrast to our assumption, trait self‐control had no effect on instigated incivility. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

From manager's emotional intelligence to objective store performance: Through store cohesiveness and sales‐directed employee behavior

The relationships among manager's emotional intelligence, store cohesiveness, sales‐directed employee behavior, and objective store performance were investigated. Non‐managerial sales employees of a large retail electronics chain in South Korea (N = 1611) rated the emotional intelligence of their own store managers as well as the group cohesiveness within their stores. Store managers (N = 253) separately rated the sales‐directed behavior of their employees. Objective sales data were collected one month later for each store. No direct relationship between manager emotional intelligence and objective store performance was found. Instead, the results supported the hypothesized four‐variable, three‐path mediation model: store manager's emotional intelligence was related to store cohesiveness, which in turn was related to the sales‐directed behavior of the frontline employees, which ultimately predicted the objective performance of the stores. Manager emotional intelligence and store cohesiveness are seen as intangible organizing resources or socio‐psychological capital for non‐managerial store employees. Implications for future research and more effective management of retail firms are discussed. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The indirect relations of workplace incivility with emotional exhaustion and supportive behaviors via self‐blame: The moderating roles of observed incivility and trait emotional control

Drawing from the social cognitive theory of self‐regulation, we develop a model linking experienced incivility to emotional exhaustion and supportive behaviors via self‐blame, with observed incivility experienced by coworkers as a first‐stage moderator and trait emotional control as a second‐stage moderator. We contend that employees will experience self‐blame if they perceive themselves to be distinct targets of incivility (i.e., observed incivility experienced by others is low). Self‐blame can potentially trigger prosocial responses for improving the situation, but self‐blaming targets rarely respond in a prosocial manner because rational attempts to do so are thwarted by deleterious negative emotions accompanying self‐blame. We argue that trait emotional control provides resources for managing these negative emotions to unleash a bright side of self‐blame, such that the relation of self‐blame with prosocial responses (i.e., being supportive to coworkers) will be more positive and the relation of self‐blame with emotional exhaustion will be less positive for individuals with high (vs. low) trait emotional control. Multiwave data collected from a sample of 220 police officers largely support our hypotheses, indicating that the indirect relation of experienced incivility with supportive behaviors via self‐blame is strongest at lower levels of observed incivility and higher levels of emotional control.     

The spillover effects of coworker,supervisor, and outsider workplace incivility on work‐to‐family conflict: A weekly diary design

This study used an experience sampling design to examine the spillover effects of experienced workplace incivility from organizational insiders (coworkers and supervisors, respectively) and organizational outsiders (patients and their visitors) on targets' work‐to‐family conflict and to test the mediating effect of burnout and the moderating effect of display rules. Data collected over five consecutive weeks from 84 full‐time nurses showed that within individuals, weekly experiences of coworker incivility and outsider incivility were positively related to weekly experience of work‐to‐family conflict, and burnout mediated these relationships while controlling for initial level of burnout before participants started a week's work. In addition, display rules, defined as the extent to which individuals perceive they are expected to display desired positive emotions and suppress negative emotions at work, moderated the relationship between outsider incivility and burnout; specifically, the positive relationship between weekly outsider incivility and burnout was stronger for individuals who perceived a higher level of display rules. Our findings contribute to the literature by demonstrating the mediating effect of burnout and the moderating effect of perceived display rules in the relationship between workplace incivility from multiple sources and work‐to‐family conflict from a resource perspective.     

Individual and group determinants of employee absenteeism: Test of a causal model

This study examined whether an employee's level of absenteeism was affected by age, organizational tenure, perceptions of interactional justice, affective and continuance commitment, and the perceived absence norm in the employees' work unit or department. One hundred and sixty-six nursing and food services employees in a mid-size chronic care hospital provided attitudinal and perceptual data on an employee survey. Absence data (absence frequency and total days absent) were collected during the 12-month period immediately following an employee survey. Hypothesized relations between the various individual- and group-level factors and employee absenteeism were specified in a structural model and tested using LISREL 7 (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1989). General support was found for the study hypotheses.     

The relationship between multiple levels of learning practices and objective and subjective organizational financial performance

Multi‐level learning approaches suggest that individuals, groups and organizations act both independently and interact dynamically to contribute to organizational performance. We directly examined this proposition in an Australian sample using a longitudinal design that employed subjective and objective financial performance data. Respondents completed a survey that provided details on their individual, team and organizational learning practices (ILP, TLP and OLP, respectively), and self assessed performance compared to 3 years ago. Concurrently, we collected objective performance data (sales/employee numbers) at 3 yearly intervals and averaged these data to create an index. Using hierarchical and moderated regression, we found a positive main effect for OLP with both subjective and objective performance. Main effects for ILP and TLP were not found. Further, we found a significant interaction between ILP and TLP such that the effect of TLP on productivity was better in organizations with less ILP. Three‐way interactions were not found. Overall, these results provide some support for the model. We discuss some limitations of the study and make recommendations for future studies. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Which comes first,organizational culture or performance? A longitudinal study of causal priority with automobile dealerships

Prior research supports a link between organizational culture and performance but generally falls short of establishing causality or determining the direction of a culture–performance (C‐P) relationship. Using data collected from 95 franchise automobile dealerships over 6 years, we studied longitudinal culture–performance relationships to determine whether culture or performance has causal priority, or alternatively, whether a reciprocal relationship exists. Results from cross‐lagged panel analyses indicate that culture “comes first,” consistently predicting subsequent ratings of customer satisfaction and vehicle sales. Furthermore, the positive effect of culture on vehicle sales is fully mediated by customer satisfaction ratings. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Linking workplace incivility to citizenship performance: The combined effects of affective commitment and conscientiousness

Although all human relationships are believed to generally adhere to the basic tenets of social exchange theory, recent research suggests that exchange processes may vary as a function of individual differences. We tested this possibility by examining whether the effects of uncivil workplace exchanges on employee attitudes and behavior were moderated by conscientiousness. Using matched data from 190 job incumbents and their supervisors, we found (i) the effect of workplace incivility on citizenship performance to be transmitted through affective commitment and (ii) the strength of this effect to depend on individual differences in conscientiousness. As such, the overall pattern of relationships supported moderated mediation, in that, the indirect effect of workplace incivility on citizenship performance through affective commitment was stronger for individuals high (as compared with those low) in conscientiousness. These findings broaden the focus of prior research by illustrating that, in addition to the mediating effects of cognitive and stress‐based factors, social exchange processes are important for understanding incivility's adverse effects on citizenship performance and that such exchanges are moderated by individual differences in conscientiousness. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of job demands and control on employee attendance and satisfaction

We examined the impact of stressful job demands on employee attitudes and attendance. Using Karasek's (1979) theory of job decision latitude as the conceptual foundation, we hypothesized that mental and physical work demands would interact with employee beliefs of personal control. Survey data from 90 male manufacturing employees regarding their control beliefs were combined with objective job analysis data concerning mental and physical demands and one year's worth of archival data regarding unexcused absences, sick days, and days tardy. There were significant interactions between control and objective psychological demands that indicated that these demands were associated with higher levels of tardiness and sick days only under conditions of low perceived control. In contrast, subjective workload ratings showed no relationship with tardiness and sick days, but, in interaction with control, predicted work satisfaction and voluntary absence. We discussed these results in terms of a stress process that affects health-related attendance independent of employee attitudes.     

Picture this: A field experiment of the influence of subtle affective stimuli on employee well‐being and performance

Prior literature examining the antecedents of employee affect has largely ignored subtle affective influences in the workplace and their impact on employees' affective experiences and behaviors. A substantial body of evidence from basic psychology research suggests that individuals' affect can be influenced by minimal stimulus input. The primary objective of this research is to take an initial step towards understanding the “real‐world” impact of subtle affective stimuli in the workplace. Specifically, in a field experiment with a within‐subjects design, we collected data from 68 sales representatives and examined the effect of a subtle affective stimulus (i.e., a black‐and‐white picture of a woman smiling printed on the backdrop of paper–pencil surveys) on employees' affect, well‐being, and performance. Results showed that the smiling picture significantly enhanced participants' positive affect, which in turn influenced employees' extra‐role performance and emotional exhaustion. The smiling picture also indirectly influenced employees' in‐role performance and emotional exhaustion via negative affect. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed at the end of the paper. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Predicting employee aggression against coworkers,subordinates and supervisors: the roles of person behaviors and perceived workplace factors

Predictors of employee aggression against coworkers, subordinates, and supervisors were studied in a sample of 136 men employed full‐time. Person behaviors (history of aggression, amount of alcohol consumed) predicted aggression against a coworker. In contrast, aggression against a supervisor was predicted by two perceived workplace factors (procedural justice, workplace surveillance). However, neither person behaviors nor perceived workplace factors predicted aggression against a subordinate. In addition, person behaviors and perceived workplace factors interacted to predict aggression. First, procedural justice interacted with amount of alcohol consumed in predicting both aggression against a coworker and aggression against a subordinate. Secondly, both job security and procedural justice interacted with history of aggression in predicting aggression against a subordinate. Finally, job security and amount of alcohol consumed interacted to predict aggression against a subordinate. Results suggest that both the understanding and prediction of employee aggression will be enhanced by taking into account the target of employee aggression, and by including both perceived workplace factors and person behaviors as predictor variables. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A social identity perspective on leadership and employee creativity

This research uses a social identity analysis to predict employee creativity. We hypothesized that team identification leads to greater employee creative performance, mediated by the individual's creative effort. We hypothesized that leader inspirational motivation as well as leader team prototypicality would moderate the relationship between identification and creative effort. Consistent with these predictions, data based on 115 matched pairs of employee‐leader ratings in a research and development context showed an indirect relationship between team identification and creative performance mediated by creative effort. The analyses also confirmed the expected moderated relationships. Leader inspirational motivation enhanced the positive association between identification and creative effort, especially when leader prototypicality was high. We discuss the value of social identity analyses of employee creativity and of the integration of social identity and transformational leadership analyses. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of an absenteeism feedback intervention on employee absence behavior†

The purpose of this study was to test the effects of an Absenteeism Feedback Intervention (AFI) on employee absenteeism. Three hundred and seventy‐one employees working in 14 experimental and 13 control groups in a medium sized hospital participated in the study. Employees working in the experimental groups received absenteeism feedback at three time periods that provided them with information about their own number of absent days and episodes (sequential days counted as a single absence episode) as well as the average of their work and occupational group. Comparisons of absent days and episodes between the AFI and control groups indicate some support for the effectiveness of the intervention. In particular, there was a reduction in absent days and episodes for employees with higher than average absenteeism during the previous year but who were not extreme offenders. The research and practical implications of the AFI for reducing employee absenteeism are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.