Heavy Metal Concentrations in Sea Urchin Tissues From Egypt, Ireland and United Kingdom

Sea urchins (Paracentrotus lividus) were collected from the Mediterranean coast off Alexandria, Egypt and the Atlantic coast of Ireland to the west of Galway. Samples of another urchin species, Psammechinus miliaris, were collected from the entrance to Southampton Water, U.K. Both the Alexandria coast and Southampton Water receive domestic and industrial waste water inputs whilst the western Irish coast is relatively unpolluted.

Sampled animals were dissected to separate coelomic fluids, Aristotle's lantern, gonads and tissue (digestive tract plus connective tissue). the concentrations of heavy metals (cadmium, copper, lead, nickel and zinc) in the different parts were measured using flame atomic absorption spectroscopy.

Many levels of heavy metals in the different parts were similar in specimens taken across the wide range of sites and the two species. A notable exception was the high level of copper (33 μg g^-1 dry wt.) and zinc 328 μg g^-1- dry wt.) in urchin tissue from Southampton Water.

The metal concentrations in the gonads of Paracentrotus lividus are of particular interest because of human consumption of this species. the highest levels of copper (3.3-5.2 g^-1- dry wt.) and zinc (74-181 μ g^-1- dry wt.) dry wt.) in gonads were found in the samples from Egypt. Data from this study are compared with other results reported from the Mediterranean.

A simple, short term, elevated water column copper uptake experiment was undertaken with Paracentrotus lividus which showed an increase in gonad concentrations of this element.     

Trace Metal Studies on the Starfish Asterias rubens L. From the Western Baltic Sea

In 1984, 115 samples of the starfish Asterias rubens L. collected in the south-eastern part of Cadet Trench (Mecklenburg Bay/Western Baltic Sea) were analyzed for their contents of a few major (calcium, magnesium) and trace elements (cadmium, copper, iron, mercury, manganese, nickel, lead, selenium and zinc). Distinct differences were found between starfish from different stations, and these are attributed to the composition of the sediments acting as a substrate for their prey (mussels, snails). Except for cadmium, the concentrations of the elements studied all correlated negatively with the diameter and weight of the starfish.

Parallel analyses of starfish arms and the central discs of the same animals showed that iron, zinc, copper and mercury levels were 16 to 30% higher, and selenium, manganese, magnesium, calcium and lead were 4 to 9% higher in the arms. Cadmium concentrations were 20% higher in the central discs than in the arms.

Stock estimations (about 52,000 tons fresh weight) show that starfish play a significant role in the benthic ecosystem of the western Baltic Sea. They can consume up to 200,000 tons of mussels and clams (Mytilus edulis, Macoma baltica) a year and may therefore represent a notable factor in the trace metal balance of the region.     

A Review of Waste Tyre Utilisation in the Marine Environment

Waste tyres pose a major disposal problem on land creating a fire hazard and, in warmer climates, providing breeding pools for mosquitoes. the void space in tyres makes them unsuitable for land burial. Schemes to use shredded tyres for road bases and asphalt filler are being pursued in the USA. Tyre combustion for electricity production is being investigated in the UK.

The widespread availability and durability of tyres has led to their use in the marine environment for breakwaters/coastal defence structures and as artificial reefs for promoting fisheries.

Tyres have a low density and have been used in floating breakwaters. Schemes have been proposed to protect and strengthen shorelines with tyre structures.

The void space in tyres facilitates the construction of artificial reefs to attract fish. the most intensive use is in the south west Pacific and Australia. Tyre surfaces are colonised by algae and a wide range of faunal species, including corals and shellfish. the wide acceptance of tyres as a suitable reef construction material appears to be based largely on these observations. Experience of initial poor deployment practices in the USA led to tyres washing ashore after storms and resulted in the banning or restriction of their use in coastal states of the USA. A review of the scientific literature has yielded limited information on the environmental impact of tyres and in particular the leaching of heavy metals and organic compounds from tyres into sea water.

Preliminary results of tyre dust/sea water leaching studies are presented. These identify zinc as the major leachate (totalling 10mg/tyre after 3 months). Diluted leachates have not shown significant effects of the growth of the phytoplankton Phaeodactylum and Isocrysis.

Further work to characterise the sea water leaching of tyre compounds is recommended.     

Heavy Metals in Tissues of the Norway Lobster Nephrops Norvegicus: Effects of Sex, Size and Season

Concentrations of mercury, cadmium, copper, zinc and iron were determined in the carapace, hepatopancreas, gills, tail muscle, ovary and eggs of 288 Norway lobsters, Nephrops norvegicus, caught in the Clyde Sea area, south of the Isle of Cumbrae, Scotland. Metal levels in males and females were examined separately in relation to size and the season in which the animals were caught.

Cadmium, copper and zinc concentrations were highest in the hepatopancreas whereas mercury and iron concentrations were highest in the gill. Levels of metals showed variations between months, with highest levels tending to occur during molt. Metal levels were influenced by lobster size with pronounced size-related increases in mercury levels in the tail muscle and cadmium levels in the hepatopancreas. Levels of several metals in the various tissues differed between the sexes.     

Stability of a Coal Waste Artificial Reef

The feasibility of using U.K. coal-fired power station waste materials for artificial reef production is being examined. in June, 1989, an experimental artificial reef was constructed in Poole Bay, off the central south coast of the U.K., using three different mixtures of pulverised fuel ash (PFA), flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) gypsum and slurry, stabilized with cement and formed into blocks. Fifty tonnes of 40 × 20 × 20 cm blocks were formed into eight conical reef units replicating three different PFA/gypsum mixtures and one concrete control. the reef structure is 10m below chart datum on a flat sandy sea-bed.

Combustion of coal concentrates the heavy metal content in the resultant ash. the purpose of stabilization of the ash as blocks is twofold: to immobilize heavy metals (or other components) and to provide hard substratum for the attachment of organisms. to examine the effectiveness of this stabilization and hence the environmental compatibility of the block materials, heavy metal (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Mn, Ni, Zn) content of the blocks has been monitored routinely over two years, to determine leaching rates. Sectional profiles indicate partial replacement of calcium content by magnesium. Associated with this there has also been some redistribution of heavy metals. Only in the case of cadmium has there been a detectable loss from the surface of blocks. Chromium and manganese concentrations appear to have increased. the metal content of the reef epibiota (including ascidians, Ascidia mentula; hydroids, Halecium spp.; bryozoans, Bugula spp. and red algae) growing on the ash blocks has been compared to that of epibiota attached to the concrete controls and surrounding sea-bed. to date no evidence of excess bioaccumulation of metals has been detected.

The physical integrity of the ash reef blocks has been maintained. There is evidence that the blocks are increasing in compressive strength.

An indication of the fishery enhancement potential of the experimental structure is given by the presence of eight commercially fished species (crustaceans and molluscs) including lobsters (Homarus gammarus).     

Environmental Pollution Due to Natural Factors: A Case Study in A Volcanic Area (Vulcano Island, Italy)

A major influence on the environment of active volcanic areas is expected from continuous input of chemical species pertaining to fumarolic activities occurring during inter-eruptive intervals.

The systematic investigations carried out during thirteen years in the island of Vulcano (Italy) showed also substantial contributions to phreatic waters and soils of minor constituents and trace metals from volcanic rocks with no negligible influence on growing crops.

Greater extents of these phenomena have been observed for products of hydromagmatic volcanic activity or of long-lasting weathering processes.     

The Role of Suspended Matter in Assessing the Assimilative Capacity Case Study of Two Estuaries in the Adriatic Sea

Suspended particulate matter has been studied in two Adriatic river mouths to assess its role as a transport vehicle for waste disposal into the Adriatic sea.

The larger of the two, the Adige River (northwestern Adriatic coast, Italy), carries large quantities of solids and builds up a prodelta. the Krka River (eastern Adriatic coast, Croatia, Yugoslavia) is a typical karst river, and carries small quantities of suspended matter, since it drains carbonate terrains.

The resulting disposal of contaminants into the Adriatic sea is largely governed by the adsorption/desorption processes occurring in the estuarine mixing region. Surface adsorption properties, the specific surface area, and the nature and reactivity of the organic film coating determine the partitioning of pollutants between the dissolved and particulate state.

The observations reported point to the key role of particulates in transport of pollutants from land to sea. the concept of the assimilative capacity of the estuarine area requires detailed scientific knowledge on the geochemical behaviour of particulates.

In the Adige River mouth, lead, chromium, zinc, and nickel are accumulated in the prodelta sediments, and thus the loading of the sea with these metals is diminished, whereas in the Krka River estuary, desorption and mobilization of some trace metals occurs.     

Phosphorus in Sediments of Lake Edku, Egypt. The Influence of Chemical and Grain Size Parameters

Lake Edku is one of the Nile Delta shallow brackish water coastal lagoons with communications with the southeastern Mediterranean.

Sediment samples were recovered from the top 10 cm of the lake bottom to study principally their total, inorganic and organic phosphorus. Related sediment parameters such as particle size, organic carbon, carbonate and iron contents were also studied in detail.

It is shown that the lake sediments are generally a sand-silt-clay mud enriched with carbonate (11.4-42%), organic carbon (0.9-11.4%) and iron (1.6-5.6%).

The total phosphorus content in these sediments is 503-1329 μg/g, inorganic phosphorus, 468-954 μg/g and organic phosphorus, 35-526 μg/g.     

VALIDATION OF AN ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY (ELISA) FOR CYPRINUS CARPIO L. VITELLOGENIN, AS A BIOMARKER OF REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS

Vitellogenin is a female sex-specific protein, and a validated and suitable method for its assay can be applied as a biomarker of reproductive disorders in male and female aquatic animals. Therefore, the present study was designed to validate an ELISA for measuring plasma vitellogenin in wild carp ( Cyprinus carpio L.) living in the Lake of Trasimeno (Umbria, Italy); plasma samples were taken during pre-spawning, spawning, and post-spawning periods; in addition to vitellogenin, in both male and female carps, plasma changes of estradiol-17 βwere monitored together with those of estrogen receptor density in the liver.

In females, VTG showed high seasonality, reaching the highest levels in March during the pre-spawning period; the VTG levels correlated with those of estradiol-17 β( E 2 ), and with the changes of gonadosomatic index (GSI), while a non parallel trend was found in the liver estrogen receptor (ER) density. In forty percent of males, VTG was found to be present in the plasma and changes of ER density in the liver were observed.

The data here reported suggest that the common carp can be a useful sentinel species for biomonitoring studies of environmental estrogens, and of their effects on its reproductive biology.     

Some Preliminary Observations On Zinc and Cadmium Accumulative Capacity in Arum Italicum Mill

Pot and hydroponic trials as well as tests on samples collected in a mining area and in two different urban sites of Tuscany were carried out on Arum italicum Mill (Italian arum) plants. Zinc and cadmium contents were determined by differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV) in different organs of about 180 samples. After 65 days treatment, zinc and cadmium median contents in leaves of plants grown hydroponically in solutions containing both metals at different concentrations fell within the range of 281-2022 and 8.3-45.1 μg g^-1 (dry weight), respectively. Some Italian arum plants were also cultivated in pots in the presence or absence of malate or citrate in order to evaluate the role of these ligands in zinc and cadmium accumulation. Citrate enhanced cadmium uptake compared to malate.     

Spatial Variations of Heavy Metals in the East China Sea Continental Shelf Surface Sediments

Surface sediments collected from continental shelf of the East China Sea were analyzed for heavy metals (iron, manganese, copper, zinc, lead, cadmium), carbonate, organic carbon contents, and grain sizes. the range of concentrations observed were iron: 0.3-1.3 wt%, manganese: 2.3-14 μmole/g, copper: 7.1-184 μmole/g, zinc: 0.16-0.77μmiole/g, lead: 15-98 μmole/g, cadmium: 0.17-3.9 μmole/g, carbonate: 3.6-87 wt%, sand: 10-100%, silt: 0-70% and clay: 0-50%.

A zonal distribution pattern of the heavy metals was found in the East China Sea Continental shelf sediments. High concentrations of most heavy metals, organic carbon and fine-grained sediments were observed in the inner shelf zone, especially those near the discharge of the Yangtze River. Concentrations of these heavy metals decreased from the inner shelf to the shelf break region. High concentrations of metals were also found in sediments near Taiwan. Iron concentrations decreased north-east of the central shelf region. High concentrations of cadmium were found in the shelf break region where biogenic carbonate is predominant. This study showed that biogenic carbonate in the East China Sea shelf break region and the terrigenous sediments from the Yangtze River and island of Taiwan were the major sources of heavy metals. Heavy metal concentrations were strongly influenced by the content of the coarse-grained quartz sand present in the sediments.     

Effect of Pollution On the Occurrence, Distribution and Sulphur Transformation Ability of the Thiobacilli in the River Ganga

The occurrence, distribution and nature of ambient thiobacilli along with their ability to oxidize different sulphur species under simulated natural and in vitro culture conditions were studied in the polluted and unpolluted sites of the River Ganga.

Thiobacillus thioparus, T. thiooxidans and T. denitrificans were isolated from the river water. the former two occurred in both polluted and unpolluted sites, while T. denitrificans occurred in polluted areas only. the paper pulp mill effluent discharge area contained the highest population of T. thioparus. the sewage drainage area showed relatively higher populations of T. thiooxidans and T. denitrificans.

The present study revealed that only biological oxidation of either thiosulphate or elemental sulphur occurred in the river water. All the thiobacilli screened oxidized thiosulphate, and three-fourths of them oxidized elemental sulphur. Some strains were found to be very good acidifiers. in spite of such acidification by the ambient thiobacilli, the pH of the river water remained alkaline. the specific rates of thiosulphate (0.18 -0.51 μMmolh^-1 mg^-1 cell) and sulphur (1.3 - 6.2 Normality day^-1 mg^-1 biomass) oxidations under simulated natural condition were found to be higher in polluted areas when compared with the unpolluted one (sulphur: 0.8 - 1.0 Normality day^-1 mg^-1).

Further, addition of thiouslphate or elemental sulphur in the river water in simulated in vitro condition resulted in the increase of respective oxidation rates. the variations in the natae of pollutants discharged into the river water influenced the oxidation rate of thiosulphate or sulphur.     

Fish Disease Monitoring in the Dutch Part of the North Sea in Relation to the Dumping of Waste From Titanium Dioxide Production

Gross pathologies were recorded in a total of 5942 individual common dab (Limanda limanda L.) at 5 sites in and around Dutch coastal waters, in spring, from 1986 to 1988. Two of these sites (an offshore dumping ground and an inshore site influenced by direct river discharge) received large quantities of diluted acids of titanium dioxide waste (TDW); the other three were selected as reference sites for comparison.

The main diseases recorded were epidermal hyperplasia/papilloma, lymphocystis, liver nodules (pre-neoplastic and neoplastic lesions), and infections caused by the protozoan Glugea sp. Frequencies of disease were analysed using a logit model. There was a consistently high prevalence of epidermal hyperplasia/papilloma in dab from the two sites that received TDW when compared to the other sites. However, no dear relationships were found between the prevalence of epidermal hyperplasia/papilloma and dumping-associated heavy metals or other relevant environmental and biological factors. No significant spatial trend was revealed for liver nodules, although there was a statistically significant association between the occurrence of epidermal hyperplasia/papilloma or of lymphocystis and that of liver nodules in individual fish. Prevalences of lymphocystis were usually higher at offshore sites than in inshore areas, while prevalences of Glugea showed the opposite trend.

Although at first sight the pattern of disease prevalence would appear to furnish a strong case for a cause-and-effect relationship between TDW and epidermal hyperplasia/papilloma, interpretation of the data is complicated by interference from riverine inputs, long-distance dispersion of discharged wastes, local hydrographic conditions, and possible local migration of dab. On the basis of present results, therefore, the possibility that discharges of TDW contributed to the occurrence of this disease cannot be proven or discounted.     

Transport of Inorganic Phosphate in the Marine Seagrass Posidonia Oceanica By 32P-Phosphate As Tracer

Uptake and loss of inorganic phosphate by Posidonia oceanica leaf tissue has been studied in in vitro experiments. Experimental data have shown that a steady state of inorganic phosphate uptake (about 40 nmol mg^-1 dry wt.) is attained after 48 hours. in particular high accumulation (over 1000-fold the natural level in sea water) and slow loss (biological half-life, 65 days) of inorganic phosphate has been evaluated. Moreover the effect of three different metabolic inhibitors (sodium monovanadate, sodium azide, 2, 4-dinitrophenol) have been tested. Results of this effect and the high degree of inorganic phosphate accumulation in leaf tissue have demonstrated that inorganic phosphate carrier is energy dependent. Furthermore, the inorganic phosphate uptake is probably influenced by bivalent cations (Ca⁺², Mg⁺²) but the mechanism is still uncertain.

Preliminary kinetic study has shown interesting results. in particular, k_m estimated value (2.8 μmol 1^-1) has demonstrated the existence of a relatively high uptake rate (V_max) at low DIP concentration while the kinetic study of inorganic phosphate loss from leaf tissues has shown a low value of the biological half life (about 60-70 days). This evidence could be significant for the existence of a complex distribution of inorganic phosphate in the leaf tissues.     

Distribution of Trace Metals in the Surface Sediments of Two Pristine Subalpine Lakes in Taiwan

Sediment cores were collected from two remote subalpine lakes: the rather shallow (1.5 m) Little Ghost Lake at 2040 m elevation and the deeper, Great Ghost Lake (40 m) at 2150 m elevation. Different early diagenesis of metals were observed. the seasonally anoxic hypolimnion drives the annual iron redox cycle and causes the remobilization of metals in the mobile fractions of sediments in the Great Ghost Lake. These result in the redistribution of metals in the mobile fractions of sediment and poor correlation between metal concentrations. in the Little Ghost Lake, the shallow water column is always oxic with less change of metals in the mobile fractions of sediments. As a result, most metals have strong positive correlations with each other.

The distributions of metal/Al ratios, total metal contents and acid-leached metal concentrations in the near-surface sediments of these two lakes suggest that the anthropogenic inputs from the atmospheric fallouts in recent decades are one of the major factors affecting the distributions of metals such as cadmium, lead and, to a lessor extent, zinc. the Pb-206/Pb-207 ratios confirm the anthropogenic lead input in these surface sediments.     

Application of High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete to Marine Structures

A new material with high content of fly ash named 'Ashcrete' has been developed. to examine the applicability of Ashcrete to marine structures, strength characteristics, resistance to sea water attack, and safety in the marine environment have been studied. the following results have been obtained:

1) the strength characteristics of high-volume fly ash concrete depend upon the type and proportions of chemical activators as well as curing conditions.

2) Ashcrete using sodium chloride (NaCI) as a chemical activator shows high initial strength and good strength development with age.

3) Ashcrete containing NaCI activator shows good resistance to sea water from the viewpoint of its strength characteristics, volume changes and microstructurcs.

4) Since 1980 many types of large-scale artificial reefs made of Ashcrete have been installed in the sea. As a result of long-term studies and underwater observations, the Japanese Government has demonstrated the durability of the material, safety in the marine environment and attractiveness to fish.

5) It is therefore proposed that Ashcrete might be used in constructing large-scale sea mounts in deep water for the purpose of generating upwelling.     

Heavy Metals in Epiphytic Mosses: An Experience in Florence

The epiphytic moss Hypnum cupressiforme has been used for passive monitoring of airborne heavy metals pollution by vehicular traffic in the urban area of Florence. Lead, cadmium, zinc and copper were determined by differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV). in the summer of 1993 about 30 samples were collected from the trunks of holm oak at the same height (1 metre) from the soil. Lead contents fall within the range of 0.02-1.08 μ moles g^-1 (dry weight) and for this metal, the emission source may be attributed mainly to vehicular traffic in poorly industrialized urban areas. Some evaluations have been carried out about the employment of Zn/Pb molar ratio for characterizing airborne pollution in urban areas.     

Control Criteria and Activities in Dumping Management in Italy

In Italy, two different types of wastes can be dumped in the seas: industrial wastes and dredged material. There are no cases of sludges from urban treatment plants being discharged into the sea.

The sea dumping of harbour dredging sludges is a long standing practice, while the disposal of industrial wastes dates back to 1965.

Two specific laws regulate these two activities, although they do not establish quality standards for the receiving sea environment. Careful evaluation must be made, case by case, of possible effects of discharge with regard to physico-chemical characteristics of materials, to general oceanological characteristics of the dumpsite and to the uses to which such a dumpsite is designated.

The analysis of different cases of industrial waste dumping, carried out at the pre-operational level and during discharge, revealed some potential for negative long-term effects on the sea environment. This, as well as the increasing public sensitivity to environmental problems, led the management agencies in Italy to take several measures aimed to stop all forms of sea dumping of industrial wastes and to revise the general criteria in issuing permits for the discharge of dredged material.     

Persistent of Organochlorine Pesticides in the Green Lip Mussel (Perna Viridis) From Marine Estuaries in Thailand

Thailand has benefited from the availability of pest control chemicals for improving agricultural products and in public health like any other developing countries. in order to understand the distribution and contamination in the Gulf of Thailand, a Mussel Watch programme has been set up to monitor trace toxic substances of organochlorine pesticides along the Gulf of Thailand since 1989.

This paper focuses on the concentration of organochlorine pesticides in green lip mussels (Perna viridis) during 1989 to 1996. the mussel samples were used as a biological indicator and analyzed for 23 organochlorine compounds. the highest frequencies of organochlorine pesticide residues in Thailand were found in aldrin, dieldrin and DDTs in all samples and the highest concentration of DDT-isomer were p,p'-DDE and p,p'-DDT during 1989-1990 and 1991. the p,p'-DDE was only found during 1993-1995.

In 1996 the level of the DDT isomer (o,p-DDE) were found in the range of 11-16ppb(ngg^-1 wet weight), HCH isomer (a-HCH) was found ND -1.6ppb(ngg^-1 wet weight) and cis-chlordane found at ND - 3.4 ppb(ngg^-1 wet weight). Other organoichlorine pesticide compounds such as dieldrin, heptachlor, aldrin, endrin and endosulfan isomers were not detected. the detection limit of all organochlorine compounds were 1.3-8.2ppb(ngg^-1 wet weight). Trends of organochlorine pesticide residue in this area were found differently from the previous data during 1989-1991.     

镉胁迫对续断菊Sonchus asper L.Hill.根系分泌物的影响

通过盆栽试验,研究了不同Cd质量分数(0、50、100、200 mg.kg-1)对续断菊Sonchus asper L.Hill.根系分泌总有机酸、游离氨基酸、可溶性糖的影响,旨在探明根系分泌物对续断菊超积累Cd的影响。结果表明:Cd胁迫下续断菊根系分泌总有机酸、游离氨基酸和可溶性糖的质量浓度显著增加,同时,总有机酸、可溶性糖和游离氨基酸又促进了植株对Cd的吸收。随着Cd处理质量分数的增加,续断菊地上部和根部镉质量分数显著增加,90 d时续断菊地上部镉质量分数与可溶性糖、游离氨基酸的质量浓度呈极显著正相关,相关系数分别为0.999(P<0.01)和0.995(P<0.01),根部镉质量分数与可溶性糖、游离氨基酸的质量浓度也呈显著正相关,相关系数分别为0.998(P<0.01)和0.987(P<0.05);Cd对续断菊根系可溶性糖的分泌、游离氨基酸的合成有刺激作用,根系分泌的可溶性糖和游离氨基酸可能在续断菊累积镉的过程中有重要作用。