The moderating effects of political skill on the perceived politics–outcome relationships

Previous research has established that perceptions of organizational politics are associated with negative organizational outcomes. However, this may not hold true for all individuals. We offer subordinate and supervisor political skill, the ability to understand interactions at work and to use that understanding to effectively influence others, as possible moderators. Specifically, this study investigates the impact of both employees' self‐rated political skill and their managers' political skill on job satisfaction, job performance, and manager‐rated commitment. We examined these relationships in an organizational sample of 106 matched dyadic pairs and found mixed support for the joint moderating effect of self and manager political skill on the politics perceptions‐outcome relationships. Strengths, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The interactive effects of conscientiousness,openness to experience,and political skill on job performance in complex jobs: The importance of context

Caveats concerning the ability of personality to predict job performance have been raised because of seemingly modest criterion‐related validity. The goal of the present research was to test whether narrowing the context via the type of job (i.e., jobs with complex task demands) and adding a social skill‐related moderator (i.e., political skill) would improve performance prediction. Further, along with political skill, the broad factor of personality demonstrated in prior research to have the strongest criterion validity (i.e., conscientiousness) was joined with a narrow construct closely related to openness to experience (i.e., learning approach) in a three‐way interactive prediction of supervisor‐rated task performance. With the employee–supervisor dyads among professionals, but not with the control group of non‐professional employees, task performance was predicted by the three‐way interaction, such that those high on all three received the highest performance ratings. Implications, strengths and limitations, and directions for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Navigating uneven terrain: The roles of political skill and LMX differentiation in prediction of work relationship quality and work outcomes

Drawing from social/political influence, leader–member exchange (LMX), and social comparison theories, the present two‐study investigation examines three levels of LMX differentiation (i.e., individual‐level, meso‐level, and group‐level LMX differentiation) and further tests a model of the joint effects of political skill and LMX differentiation on LMX, relative LMX, and employee work outcomes. In Study 1, we used data from 231 employees and found support for the interactive effect of political skill and individual perceptions of LMX differentiation on LMX quality. We also found partial support for the moderating role of individual‐level LMX differentiation on the indirect effects of political skill on self‐rated task performance and job satisfaction via LMX. In Study 2, we used data from 185 supervisor–subordinate dyads and examined both meso‐level and group‐level LMX differentiation via a multilevel moderated mediation model. Results supported the moderating role of group‐level LMX differentiation and group mean LMX on the indirect effects of political skill on supervisor‐rated task performance and contextual performance/citizenship behavior as well as job satisfaction via relative LMX. Overall, the results suggest that politically skilled employees reap the benefits of LMX differentiation, as they enjoy higher absolute LMX and relative (i.e., to their peers) LMX quality. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of supervisor political skill in mentoring: Dual motivational perspectives

Drawing on self‐determination and self‐concept‐based theories, this study investigated the mediating effects of psychological empowerment and organization‐based self‐esteem on the relationship between supervisory mentoring and employee performance and the moderating effect of supervisor political skill on the direct and first stage of the indirect effects. Data were obtained from a sample of 330 subordinate–supervisor dyads from the People's Republic of China. Using PROCESS of conditional indirect effect, we found support for the moderated direct and indirect effects of supervisory mentoring. First, supervisor political skill moderates the direct effect of supervisory mentoring on employee promotability. Second, supervisor political skill moderates the indirect effect of supervisory mentoring on the following: (i) employee promotability via both psychological empowerment and organization‐based self‐esteem and (ii) contextual performance only via psychological empowerment. These direct and indirect effects of supervisory mentoring are stronger when supervisors demonstrate a higher level of political skill. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Moderating effects of political skill,perceived control,and job‐related self‐efficacy on the relationship between negative affectivity and physiological strain

The present study examined whether employees high in negative affectivity (NA) are destined to experience strain at a higher level than those low in NA. We used data collected from 230 employees to investigate the moderating effects of political skill, as a form of interpersonal control, on the relationship between NA and physiological strain. As hypothesized, NA was positively related to physiological strain (i.e., facial muscle tension as measured by electromyography (EMG)), and political skill buffered this effect such that the relationship was weaker among employees who were higher in political skill. Tests of mediated moderation further suggested the means by which political skill moderates the NA/strain relationship; specifically, the results were consistent with the idea that perceived control and, in turn, job‐related efficacy explain the moderating effect of political skill. Strengths and limitations of the study, practical implications, and directions for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of self‐regulation in the relationship between abusive supervision and job tension

Trait and state self‐regulation both have critical influences on workplace behavior, but their influences are thought to operate quite differently. We draw from social exchange and ego depletion theories to investigate the relationship between trait and state self‐regulation, as well as how they differentially affect the relationship between subordinates' perceptions of abusive supervision and job tension. Specifically, we examine (a) how the interaction between abusive supervision and trait self‐regulation affects job tension and (b) how state self‐regulation mediates the relationship between abusive supervision and job tension. Using 3 studies that include an experiment (n = 81) and 2 field studies with cross‐sectional (n = 157) and time‐separated (n = 109) data, we demonstrate that the interaction between abusive supervision and trait self‐regulation increases experienced job tension for subordinates who report higher levels of abusive supervision and trait self‐regulation than others. Also, we provide evidence that abusive supervision is indirectly associated with job tension through state self‐regulation. This study's findings have important implications for abusive supervision and self‐regulation research, as well as social exchange and ego depletion theories, because we extend our understanding of how trait and state self‐regulation affect cognitive responses associated with abusive supervision.     

Work stressors and coworker support as predictors of individual strain and job performance

This study examined job stressors and coworker social support in relation to both psychological strains and performance. One hundred and ninety‐eight door‐to‐door bookdealers, employed on a seasonal basis, completed self‐report measures of job stressors, psychological strains, coworker social support, and job performance. Performance data were also obtained from company records. Results indicated that stressors predicted both psychological strains and one of the two measures of performance. The strongest predictor was a job‐specific measure of chronic stressors. Social support predicted psychological strains, although it was only weakly related to performance. There was no evidence that social support moderated the effects of any of the stressors. Implications of these findings are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Political behaviors as moderators of the perceptions of organizational politics—work outcomes relationships

This study investigates the complexities involved in the relationships between perceptions of politics and work outcomes by examining the effects of political behavior on that relationship. More specifically, we suggest that political behavior may serve as a form of control or as a mechanism for coping with highly political organizational environments perceived by individuals to be aversive. As such, we propose moderating roles of self‐promotion and ingratiation on the relationships between perceptions of politics and the work outcomes of satisfaction with job in general, satisfaction with supervision, and intent to leave. It was hypothesized that increased exercise of self‐promotion and ingratiation behaviors would mitigate the negative effects of perceptions of organizational politics on those specific outcomes. Hypotheses were supported for the proposed relationships between self‐promotion and two of the work outcomes: satisfaction with supervision and intent to leave. Significant effects were also found for ingratiation; however, they were opposite to those proposed for the perceptions of organizational politics–intent to leave relationship. Implications of results and areas for future research are discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Political skill as an indicator of promotability among multiple rater sources

Recognizing that organizations are inherently political arenas, investigating the relationship between political skill and various individual and organizational outcomes is increasing in the literature because employees need political skill in order to work effectively in such environments. Previous research, however, has not examined whether political skill is an indicator of promotability among different rater sources (i.e., bosses, direct reports, and peers). This study attempted to fill such gaps in previous research by examining whether the magnitude of the relationship between political skill and promotability differed depending upon which rater source was evaluating promotability. Using data from 262 practicing target‐managers from around the world, the authors found that target‐managers with more political skill had higher promotability ratings from three different coworker perspectives and the magnitude of the relationship was different for bosses and peers vis‐à‐vis direct reports. Furthermore, peer ratings of task‐related leader behavior mediated the relationship between political skill and boss ratings of promotability. Contributions of this study are discussed, as are limitations, future research directions, and practical implications. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self‐efficacy changes in groups: effects of diversity,leadership, and group climate

Self‐efficacy belief is a significant predictor of behavioral choices in terms of goal setting, the amount of effort devoted to a particular task, and actual performance. This study conceives of formation and change of self‐efficacy as a social and context‐dependent process. We hypothesized that different group factors (discretionary and ambient group stimuli) influence changes in members' self‐efficacy through differing routes (individual‐level and cross‐level processes). We tested our hypotheses using data from individuals in 169 training groups who attended a 5‐day workshop designed to increase participants' job‐search skills and efficacy. Specifically, we examined the degree of change in participants' job‐search efficacy before and after the workshop. The results showed that (a) membership diversity in education was positively related to increases in job‐search efficacy, (b) supportive leadership contributed to job‐search efficacy at the individual level of analysis with no cross‐level effects, and (c) open group climate contributed to job‐search efficacy through both individual‐level and cross‐level processes. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Predicting the form and direction of work role performance from the Big 5 model of personality traits

This research examined the prediction of the form and direction of work role performance from the Big 5 model of personality traits. Nine dimensions of work role performance are created by cross‐classifying the form of work role behavior (proficient, adaptive, and proactive) with the level at which that behavior contributes to effectiveness (individual, team, and organizational). The authors collected self‐report measurements of personality from 1447 government employees and supervisor ratings of performance. Openness to experience and agreeableness had opposing effects on individual proactivity – openness was positively related, whereas agreeableness was negatively related to this dimension. Openness to experience also had opposing effects on the form of work role performance – it was positively related to individual and organizational proactivity but negatively related to team and organizational proficiency. Conscientiousness was a stronger predictor of individual task proficiency than the remaining eight dimensions, whereas the reverse was true for neuroticism. Extraversion was negatively related to individual proficiency. Using a broad taxonomy of performance that incorporates a theoretical framework for distinguishing between constructs shows promise for identifying which personality traits are important for which aspects of work role performance. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The impact of impression‐management tactics on supervisor ratings of organizational citizenship behavior

Previous research indicates that the use of impression management is related to supervisor ratings of employee likeability and job performance. It has been argued, though, that employees might also use impression management so that their superiors will see them as ‘good soldiers’ who engage in high levels of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). This study investigates the ways in which three types of impression management—namely, job‐focused, self‐focused, and supervisor‐focused tactics of impression management—influence supervisor ratings of OCB. Using a sample of 122 supervisor‐subordinate dyads, the findings indicate that supervisor‐focused tactics of impression management are positively related to OCB ratings, while job‐focused tactics are negatively related to such evaluations. Additionally, citizenship behaviors are positively related to supervisor liking of the employee and overall ratings of job performance. Finally, the results suggest that OCB ratings mediate the relationship between supervisor‐focused tactics of impression management and supervisor evaluations of employee likeability. Some implications of this study and directions for future research are also addressed. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The dark side of socialization: How and when divestiture socialization undermines newcomer outcomes

This research examines the potential downsides of divestiture socialization. We theorize that supervisor behaviors and attitudes—that is, support for authenticity and creativity expectations—moderate the different stages of a model in which newcomers' authentic self‐expression mediates the negative effect of divestiture socialization on newcomer task performance, creativity, social integration, and job satisfaction. Specifically, supervisor support for authenticity allows newcomers to express their authentic self when faced with divestiture processes, and perceived supervisor creativity expectations enable them to deploy their authentic self‐expressions to enhance their creativity. A time‐lagged, multisource study of 142 newcomer—supervisor dyads provides support for these predictions, offering notable implications for theory and practice.     

Thriving at work: Toward its measurement,construct validation,and theoretical refinement

Thriving is defined as the psychological state in which individuals experience both a sense of vitality and learning. We developed and validated a measure of the construct of thriving at work. Additionally, we theoretically refined the construct by linking it to key outcomes, such as job performance, and by examining its contextual embeddedness. In Study 1, we conducted second‐order confirmatory factor analyses in two samples, demonstrating initial support for the two‐dimensional structure of thriving. We provided evidence for the convergent and discriminant validity of thriving in relation to theoretically related constructs, such as positive and negative affects, learning and performance goal orientations, proactive personality, and core self‐evaluations. In Study 2, across two different samples, we further assessed construct validity by establishing a relationship between thriving and career development initiative, burnout, health, and individual job performance, explaining significant variance beyond traditional attitudinal predictors, such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Finally, in Study 3, we focused on understanding the contextual embeddedness of thriving. We found differences in reports of thriving across two points in time, when substantial changes are occurring in peoples' work lives and across contexts (i.e., work and non‐work). Implications for theory and practice, as well as directions for future research, are discussed. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

General self‐efficacy and self‐esteem: toward theoretical and empirical distinction between correlated self‐evaluations

To test whether general self‐efficacy and self‐esteem relate differently to motivational and affective constructs, we collected data from samples in academic and work settings. Results suggest that general self‐efficacy is more highly related to motivational variables than is self‐esteem, whereas self‐esteem is more highly related to affective variables than is general self‐efficacy, as hypothesized. Furthermore, results support the notion that motivational and affective states differentially mediate the relationships of general self‐efficacy and self‐esteem with task performance. These results confirm the theoretical distinction between general self‐efficacy and self‐esteem and suggest that failure to distinguish between them might exact a price in terms of precision, validity, and understanding of determinants of performance. Implications for research and practice in organizations are discussed. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The antecedents and consequences of underemployment among expatriates

While most previous research has studied underemployment among laid‐off workers or new college graduates in domestic settings, this study investigates underemployment among managers in overseas assignments. Using data from 268 expatriates from six Fortune 500 multinational firms, the results here suggest that several important job‐ and organizational‐level factors may contribute to underemployment among expatriates: hierarchical job level, assignment tenure, the extent to which expatriates have specific projects to complete, the degree of free choice in the decision to go overseas, the amount of on‐site mentoring, and the strategic importance of the overseas site. In contrast to previous research, then, the present study suggests that many expatriates are overqualified, as well as underqualified, for their overseas assignments. Moreover, this underemployment is negatively related to expatriates' job attitudes, general mental health, and self‐reported job performance. In addition, mediated regression analyses revealed that underemployment is an important intervening link between antecedent and outcome variables. The implications of the results for future theory development, empirical research, and management practice on underemployment are discussed as well. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A multi‐rater assessment of organizational commitment: are self‐report measures biased?

Most investigations of organizational commitment have been conducted using self‐report measures, however, the veracity of self‐reports is often questioned. In a sample of 79 public‐sector administrative staff, we assessed two types of organizational commitment (affective and continuance) from the perspective of three different sources of raters (self, peer, and supervisor) to test three explanations of the factors influencing self‐report measures (observational opportunities, simple defensiveness, and moderated defensiveness). The pattern of correlations among the measures, analysed using the composite direct product multitrait–multirater approach, suggested that self‐report commitment measures are affected mainly by observations or experiences of the self‐reporter rather than by systematic bias related to defensive responding. This increases our confidence that scores from self‐report measures of affective and continuance commitment are veridical. Further, self‐ and peer‐based measures of commitment were largely redundant in the prediction of a job‐performance criterion whereas supervisory measures added unique predictive variance. Implications are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of other orientation on self–supervisor rating agreement

Employees generally rate their performance more favorably than do their supervisors, which can lead to conflict and poor job performance. However, comparative international research indicates that persons from other‐oriented collectivist cultures are less self‐enhancing, suggesting that other‐oriented employees will exhibit greater agreement with ratings provided by their supervisors. We examined the effect of subordinates' other orientation on self‐supervisor performance rating agreement. Consistent with cultural expectations, self‐ratings of other‐oriented subordinates showed greater agreement with ratings provided by their supervisors and less leniency relative to their supervisors' evaluations. These findings have implications for understanding how employees in different professions, organizations, and cultures utilize feedback from their supervisors. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The predictive and interactive effects of equity sensitivity in teamwork‐oriented organizations

Many studies have investigated the relationship between equity sensitivity and other variables of organizational importance. Although theoretical grounds support a link between equity sensitivity and job performance, to date no studies have found equity sensitivity to be a valid predictor of non self‐reported job performance in field research. The two field studies reported here empirically support this link and demonstrate that equity sensitivity may also interact with personality traits in predicting job performance. Limitations of the current investigations and future research are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

General and specific measures in organizational behavior research: Considerations,examples, and recommendations for researchers

Deliberation over and relative preference for general or specific (broad or narrow) constructs has long been an important issue in organizational behavior research. In this article, we provide a review of this general issue and some specific recommendations for researchers. We begin by discussing whether the general versus specific issue is an important debate and by discussing other underlying issues (the role of researcher preferences, distinction between reflective and formative indicators, and distinction between constructs and measures of constructs). Building on Chen's (this issue) analysis of core self‐evaluations, we first discuss how the general–specific debate has progressed in core self‐evaluations research. We then discuss three other important areas in which this debate has played out: intelligence, five‐factor model of personality, and job attitudes. Finally, we offer a framework to help guide decisions about whether to utilize general measures, specific measures, or both and conclude by providing recommendations for the use of general and specific measures in organizational behavior research. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.