The impact of a large‐scale traumatic event on individual and organizational outcomes: exploring employee and company reactions to September 11, 2001

Much of the literature on stress and organizational outcomes has focused on organizational factors and has ignored extraorganizational stressors that lead to perceived stress. However, research in other fields and recent studies in management suggests that acute‐extraorganizational stressors, such as traumatic events, may have potentially negative and costly implications for organizations. This study tests a theoretical model of traumatic stress and considers the relationship between strain from an acute‐extraorganizational stressor, the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001, and absenteeism. Using a sample of 108 MBA and MPA students, this study suggests that strain caused by an acute‐extraorganizational stressor can have important consequences for organizations. Namely, employees who report more strain from a traumatic life event are more likely to be absent from work in the weeks following the event. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Externalization of employment in a service environment: the role of organizational and customer identification

This study investigates the impact of employment externalization (in the form of limited‐term vs. permanent employment status) on customer‐oriented service behavior, and how identification processes may help to resolve the ‘paradox of externalization’ (i.e., organizations relying more on potentially disenfranchised employees to maintain strong connections with their customers). Survey data were obtained from 369 sales, service, and technical support personnel from the Canadian subsidiary of a large international service organization in the high technology sector. Organizational and customer identification fully mediate the relationship between employment status and customer‐oriented service behavior. Additionally, the perceived external image of the organization and the visibility of one's affiliation with the organization moderate the relationships between employment status and organizational and customer identification. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The different paths to post‐merger identification for employees from high and low status pre‐merger organizations

A well‐known downside of organizational mergers is that employees fail to identify with the newly formed organization. We argue that developing an understanding of factors that affect post‐merger identification requires taking the pre‐merger status of the merger partners relative to each other into account. This is because relative pre‐merger status determines employees' susceptibility to different aspects of the merger process. Specifically, for employees of a high status pre‐merger organization, we expected post‐merger identification to be strongly influenced by (i) pre‐merger identification and (ii) the perceived change in the status. In contrast, we expected post‐merger identification of employees of a low status pre‐merger organization to be strongly affected by the perceived justice of the merger event. Longitudinal data were obtained from a merger of two public sector organizations and the results supported our hypotheses. Our study shows that the extent to which pre‐merger identification, status change, and justice are important determinants of post‐merger identification depends on the relative pre‐merger status of the merger partners. Our discussion focuses on theoretical implications and managerial ramifications of these findings. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Social identity and applicant attraction: Exploring the role of multiple levels of self

Applicant attraction is a critical objective of recruitment. Common predictor variables of applicant attraction are limited in that they do not provide a comprehensive understanding of the process that shapes the perceptions and beliefs of job applicants about the firms for which they aspire to work for. Because individuals have the inherent desire to expand and enhance their social identities (e.g., personal, relational, and collective identities), they are likely to be attracted to organizations that allow them to do so. Building on recent work on levels of self, our paper suggests that social identities mediate the relation between currently established predictor variables of applicant attraction (e.g., compensation, type of work, and organizational image) and important applicant attraction outcomes. Common predictor variables of applicant attraction can lead to the activation, evaluation, and identification processes described by social identity theory. A theoretical framework is presented that illustrates the mediating influence of social identity on the relations between common predictor variables and applicant attraction outcomes. This framework may lead to more effective recruitment strategies. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An empirical analysis of surface acting in intra‐organizational relationships

Prior research analyzing surface acting—employees' regulation of emotional expressions—has mostly focused on the interactions between front‐line employees and their customers in service industries and paid very little attention to intra‐organizational relationships. With an aim to shed light on this important yet relatively unexplored area, I developed a theoretical model analyzing the antecedents and outcomes of surface acting within organizations, by drawing on the sociometer theory and self‐presentation theory frameworks. To test the model, I conducted a cross‐level field study in a sample of 65 work groups and 478 employees in two organizations, located in a large city in Northern California. I have collected the data from two sources, including employees and their supervisors who rated their performance. Results indicated that employees were more likely to engage in surface acting when their affective traits and personal goals were less congruent with work environment. Surface acting was also positively related to perceived organizational politics and self‐monitoring. As for outcomes, surface acting was positively related to emotional exhaustion and negatively to performance. I discuss limitations, implications, and future research direction. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Valuing diversity: a group‐value approach to understanding the importance of organizational efforts to support diversity

Using Leventhal's rules as well as the group‐value model of procedural justice, we first examined how the negative effects of perceived racial discrimination on procedural justice judgments can be attenuated by perceived organizational efforts to support diversity. Secondly, we examine how these effects ultimately impact affective commitment and organizational citizenship behavior. We found that employees who believe some individuals in the workplace are discriminating against them on the basis of race tend to report lower levels of procedural justice from the organization. However, this negative relationship was attenuated when employees perceived that their organization was making efforts to support diversity. Results suggest that individuals' perceptions of organizational efforts to support diversity can help restore perceptions of procedural justice for employees who experience racial discrimination at work. Improving procedural justice also positively impacts affective commitment and organizational citizenship behavior directed at the organization. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Steel sharpens steel: A review of multilevel competition and competitiveness in organizations

Competition between individuals permeates people's lives as they strive for limited resources, services, and status. However, research on competition and competitiveness in organizations is limited despite its relevance to relational dynamics (e.g., rivalry), individual differences (e.g., traits and gender), social factors (e.g., competitive climate), and organizational outcomes (e.g., work performance and unethical behavior). In this article, we propose a multilevel model of competition and competitiveness that includes the individual, the group, and the situation. By providing a holistic overview of research across a broad array of disciplines, we organize the field and create a usable framework to advance knowledge of competition and competitiveness. In doing so, we identify what we know, what we still need to discover, and provide direction for future research. The article closes with an assessment of methods and measures used in studying competition. In conclusion, this review establishes a multilevel and integrative structure that incorporates individual and team competitiveness with competitive situations that prompt competitive processes and important organizational outcomes.     

Another look at the locus of control–organizational commitment relationship: it depends on the form of commitment

Previous studies imply that individuals with an external locus of control (LOC) are less likely to be committed to their organizations. More recent work on organizational commitment has suggested that commitment is not a unidimensional construct and can take several forms (e.g., affective and continuance). Using a sample of 232 employees of a Canadian governmental agency, we examined the relations between LOC and two different forms of organizational commitment that have been found to have different antecedents and consequences. We found that internal LOC was associated with affective commitment and external LOC was associated with continuance commitment. Implications for research and practice are discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

To stay or to go: voluntary survivor turnover following an organizational downsizing

This paper examines the relationship between survivor reactions to a downsizing and retention subsequent to a downsizing. We hypothesize that survivors who experience the downsizing as distributively, procedurally, and interactionally just and who see top management as trustworthy will feel more attached to the organization because each reduces the threat inherent in downsizing. In addition, we hypothesize that survivors who feel empowered will also feel more attached to the organization because they feel better able to cope with the downsizing. We further hypothesize that those survivors who feel more attached to the organization following the downsizing will be more likely to remain with the organization in the coming year. The theoretical model is tested on a sample of aerospace employees who survived an organizational downsizing. The trustworthiness of management, distributive justice, procedural justice, and three dimensions of empowerment are found to facilitate more organizational attachment. Higher levels of attachment are found, in turn, to facilitate less voluntary turnover in the year following the downsizing. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A multi‐level investigation of psychological contract breach and organizational identification through the lens of perceived organizational membership: Testing a moderated–mediated model

Drawing on the perceived organizational membership theoretical framework and the social identity view of dissonance theory, I examined in this study the dynamics of the relationship between psychological contract breach and organizational identification. I included group‐level transformational and transactional leadership as well as procedural justice in the hypothesized model as key antecedents for organizational membership processes. I further explored the mediating role of psychological contract breach in the relationship between leadership, procedural justice climate, and organizational identification and proposed separateness–connectedness self‐schema as an important moderator of the above mediated relationship. Hierarchical linear modeling results from a sample of 864 employees from 162 work units in 10 Greek organizations indicated that employees' perception of psychological contract breach negatively affected their organizational identification. I also found psychological contract breach to mediate the impact of transformational and transactional leadership on organizational identification. Results further provided support for moderated mediation and showed that the indirect effects of transformational and transactional leadership on identification through psychological contract breach were stronger for employees with a low connectedness self‐schema. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Multiple organizational identification levels and the impact of perceived external prestige and communication climate

Earlier studies have shown that perceived external prestige and communication climate influence organizational identification. In this paper we present the results of a study of the influence of communication climate and perceived external prestige on organizational identification at various organizational levels of a regional police organization. In total, 314 respondents filled out a questionnaire on communication climate, perceived external prestige and organizational identification. The results of this study show that communication climate has the strongest link with employee identification when it concerns the identification with the daily work group and a weaker one with the organization as a whole. It also appears that perceived external prestige has a stronger influence on the identification with the organization as a whole than on the identification at the more concrete organizational levels (such as department or work group). This research offers reasons to presuppose that organizational identification and communication climate are multiple constructs. If management wishes to influence organizational identification through a bottom‐up process, it is wise to pay particular attention to the communication climate in the work groups. Influencing organizational identification with the organization as a whole is better conducted through perceived external prestige. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A meta‐analytic comparison of self‐reported and other‐reported organizational citizenship behavior

Given the common use of self‐ratings and other‐ratings (e.g., supervisor or coworker) of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), the purpose of this meta‐analysis was to evaluate the extent to which these rating sources provide comparable information. The current study's results provided three important lines of evidence supporting the use and construct‐related validity of self‐rated OCB. The meta‐analysis of mean differences demonstrated that the mean difference in OCB ratings is actually quite small between self‐ and other‐raters. Importantly, the difference between self‐ and other‐raters was influenced by neither the response scale (i.e., agreement vs. frequency) nor the use of antithetical/reverse‐worded items on OCB scales. The meta‐analysis of correlations showed that self‐ and other‐ratings are moderately correlated but that self–other convergence is higher when antithetical items are not used and when agreement response scales are used. In addition, self‐ratings and supervisor‐ratings showed significantly more convergence than self‐ratings and coworker‐ratings. Finally, an evaluation of self‐rated and other‐rated OCB nomological networks showed that although self‐rated and other‐rated OCBs have similar patterns of relationships with common correlates, other‐rated OCB generally contributed negligible incremental variance to correlates and only contributed appreciable incremental variance to other‐rated behavioral variables (e.g., task performance and counterproductive work behavior). Implications and future research directions are discussed, particularly regarding the need to establish a nomological network for other‐rated OCB. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Alumni and their alma mater: A partial test of the reformulated model of organizational identification

Organizational identification is defined as a perceived oneness with an organization and the experience of the organization's successes and failures as one's own. While identification is considered important to the organization, it has not been clearly operationalized. The current study tests a proposed model of organizational identification. Self-report data from 297 alumni of an all-male religious college indicate that identification with the alma mater was associated with: (1) the hypothesized organizational antecedents of organizational distinctiveness, organizational prestige, and (absence of) intraorganizational competition, but not with interorganizational competition, (2) the hypothesized individual antecedents of satisfaction with the organization, tenure as students, and sentimentality, but not with recency of attendance, number of schools attended, or the existence of a mentor, and (3) the hypothesized outcomes of making financial contributions, willingness to advise one's offspring and others to attend the college, and participating in various school functions. The findings provide direction for academic administrators seeking to increase alumni support, as well as for corporate managers concerned about the loyalty of workers in an era of mergers and takeovers.     

Assumptions beyond the science: encouraging cautious conclusions about functional magnetic resonance imaging research on organizational behavior

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is likely to become the major tool for studying the neural underpinnings of organizational behavior. It is a technique for brain imaging that, according to advocates, provides information about which areas of the brain are activated during organizational processes (e.g., leadership and decision‐making). In this article, we take a critical look at this tool from a technical perspective. In particular, we take the reader through the assumptions that must be made at the three main steps of the research process (study design, data capture, and interpretation of results) in order to draw conclusions about organizational phenomena from fMRI research. Applying this analysis to three case studies demonstrates the gap between what fMRI can actually tell us and the claims often made about the contribution of fMRI to understanding and improving organizational behavior. Our discussion provides researchers with a series of recommendations oriented toward optimizing the use of fMRI to help it live up to its potential in the field of organizational behavior and consumers with a means of evaluating fMRI research in order to draw appropriate and warranted conclusions. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Managers' coping resources,perceived organizational patterns,and responses during organizational recovery from decline

This study proposes that individual coping resources and organizational patterns explain the responses of mid‐level managers to organizational recovery after decline. The study sample consisted of 252 managers in Israeli enterprises recovering from organizational decline. The responses studied were—citizenship responses, negative responses, the wish to exit and acts to exit the organization. Hypotheses were developed relating these responses to individual coping resources of job involvement, self‐esteem and locus of control, and to organizational factors of organic processes, top management support, and organizational opportunities. Findings indicated that most coping resources and organizational patterns correlated with type of response: citizenship behaviors were related to job involvement, internal locus of control, self‐esteem and to perceptions of opportunities and organic processes in the organization. They were negatively related to external locus of control. Negative behavior was negatively related to job involvement, self‐esteem, perceived organizational opportunities and organic processes. The wish to exit related negatively to job involvement, external locus of control, and perceived opportunities. It related positively to self‐esteem. Actual exit behavior was not predicted by the coping resources, nor by organizational factors. Three‐stage multiple regression analyses revealed that individual coping characteristics reduced the impacts of organizational factors for most responses. Implications for management are discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Leader–member exchange,organizational identification,and knowledge hiding: The moderating role of relative leader–member exchange

In this article, we sought to identify a new interpersonal antecedent of knowledge hiding, namely, leader–member exchange (LMX). Drawing on the group engagement model (an extension of social identity theory within the group/organization context), we built a theoretical model linking LMX and knowledge hiding. This model focuses on the mediating role of organizational identification and the moderating role of relative LMX in influencing the mediation. Using two time‐lagged studies (Study 1: n = 317; Study 2: n = 248) conducted in China, we examined our research model. Study 1 provided support for the proposed hypotheses for evasive hiding and playing dumb but not for rationalized hiding. Study 2 replicated and extended our findings. Results revealed that (a) LMX was negatively related to evasive hiding and playing dumb but not to rationalized hiding; (b) organizational identification mediated the influence of LMX on evasive hiding and playing dumb but not on rationalized hiding; and (c) relative LMX not only moderated the relationship between LMX and organizational identification but also reinforced the indirect effect of LMX on evasive hiding and playing dumb but not on rationalized hiding (via organizational identification). The implications, limitations, and future research directions are also discussed.     

Commitment,procedural fairness,and organizational citizenship behavior: a multifoci analysis

Research on commitment, procedural fairness, and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) suggests that employees maintain distinct beliefs about, and direct behaviors towards, multiple targets in the workplace (e.g., the organization as a whole, their supervisor, and fellow workgroup members). The present studies were designed to test for “target similarity effects,” in which the relationships between commitment, procedural fairness, and OCB were expected to be stronger when they referred to the same target than when they referred to different targets. As predicted, we found that: (1) the positive relationship between commitment and OCB, and (2) the mediating effect of commitment on the positive relationship between procedural fairness and OCB, was particularly likely to emerge when the constructs were in reference to the same target. Support for these target similarity effects was found among layoff survivors (Study 1) and student project teams (Study 2). Theoretical and practical implications are discussed, as are limitations of the studies and suggestions for future research. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The impact of impression‐management tactics on supervisor ratings of organizational citizenship behavior

Previous research indicates that the use of impression management is related to supervisor ratings of employee likeability and job performance. It has been argued, though, that employees might also use impression management so that their superiors will see them as ‘good soldiers’ who engage in high levels of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). This study investigates the ways in which three types of impression management—namely, job‐focused, self‐focused, and supervisor‐focused tactics of impression management—influence supervisor ratings of OCB. Using a sample of 122 supervisor‐subordinate dyads, the findings indicate that supervisor‐focused tactics of impression management are positively related to OCB ratings, while job‐focused tactics are negatively related to such evaluations. Additionally, citizenship behaviors are positively related to supervisor liking of the employee and overall ratings of job performance. Finally, the results suggest that OCB ratings mediate the relationship between supervisor‐focused tactics of impression management and supervisor evaluations of employee likeability. Some implications of this study and directions for future research are also addressed. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Integrating managerial perceptions and transformational leadership into a work‐unit level model of employee involvement

Employee involvement is an organizational phenomenon that has received increasing empirical attention. Although much research has examined the outcomes of involvement at the organization level, arguments can be made for exploring involvement at the work‐unit level and for investigating the processes by which a unit‐level climate of involvement may be created or emerge. Building on largely untested suggestions that such processes are likely to be motivational and initiated by employees' immediate supervisors, this paper incorporates two concepts of managerial perceptions and leadership into a work‐unit level model of involvement climate. In particular, this study examines the indirect association of managerial perceptions about subordinates' ability to perform and about the utility of organizational practices for facilitating performance, as well as the direct association of transformational leadership, with a climate of involvement. The association of involvement climate with citizenship, absenteeism, and voluntary turnover is also considered. Using structural equation modeling in a sample of 167 work units, results indicate that leadership fully mediates the relationship between managers' perceptions about their subordinates and climate. Further, climate partially mediates and fully mediates the relationship between leadership and citizenship, and absenteeism, respectively. Implications for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.