Selection of human consumables for future space missions

Consumables for human spaceflight include oxygen, water, food and food packaging, personal hygiene items, and clothing. This paper deals with the requirements for food and water, and their impact on waste product generation. Just as urbanization of society has been made possible by improved food processing and packaging, manned spaceflight has benefitted from this technology. The downside of this technology is increased food package waste product. Since consumables make up a major portion of the vehicle onboard stowage and generate most of the waste products, selection of consumables is a very critical process. Food and package waste comprise the majority of the trash generated on the current shuttle orbiter missions. Plans for future missions must include accurate assessment of the waste products to be generated, and the methods for processing and disposing of these wastes.     

Collection,compaction and storage of solid waste for space missions

Efficient trash collection and volume reduction becomes very important during extended, manned space flight missions because of the high rate of crew member generated trash and the limited volume available to store this trash. Trash management in manned space flight vehicles requires that the following considerations be addressed: definition of the trash model including quantities/rates of generation and the physico-chemical characteristics of the trash; methods of collection and temporary stowage prior to treatment or processing; the method of treatment/processing to affect biochemical stabilization and volume reduction; and storage of treated/ processed trash prior to final disposition. This paper discusses trash management design approaches with focus on trash collection, compaction and storage. This paper also discusses the trash compactor design currently being developed for the Space Station Freedom program.     

Collection and management of fecal wastes for space missions

An improved type of human waste collection subsystem has been developed for Space Station Freedom which is designed to meet the challenges of zero gravity collection and system performance. Fecal collection is followed by passive storage for relatively short duration missions. The benefits of utilizing components in solid wastes as part of a partial or completely closed Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) become more apparent as the duration of the mission increases. The purpose of this review is to summarize the development issues associated with the current waste management subsystem for Space Station Freedom. Also reviewed are current ideas associated with the evolutionary development of this waste management subsystem for longer duration missions.     

Physical and chemical processes for solid waste treatment applied to a crewed space habitat

Solid wastes can be processed for material and energy recovery using a number of unit operations and system approaches. The selection and configuration of unit operations and systems depends upon the characteristics of the wastes to be processed and the uses for recovered secondary materials and for recovered energy forms. The discussion focuses on the types of materials and forms of energy potentially recoverable from solid wastes, waste processing and conversion systems, and design considerations.     

A multiple criteria analysis for household solid waste management in the urban community of Dakar

Household solid waste management is a severe problem in big cities of developing countries. Mismanaged solid waste dumpsites produce bad sanitary, ecological and economic consequences for the whole population, especially for the poorest urban inhabitants. Dealing with this problem, this paper utilizes field data collected in the urban community of Dakar, in view of ranking nine areas of the city with respect to multiple criteria of nuisance. Nine criteria are built and organized in three families that represent three classical viewpoints: the production of wastes, their collection and their treatment. Thanks to the method PROMETHEE and the software ARGOS, we do a pair-wise comparison of the nine areas, which allows their multiple criteria rankings according to each viewpoint and then globally. Finding the worst and best areas in terms of nuisance for a better waste management in the city is our final purpose, fitting as well as possible the needs of the urban community. Based on field knowledge and on the literature, we suggest applying general and area-specific remedies to the household solid waste problems.     

Minimizing waste polymers in space

Waste polymers, essentially plastic packages, make up a significant fraction of solid wastes in a crewed space habitat. While logistic limitations preclude consideration of recovery/recycling technologies that have proven viable on Earth, the challenge in space is to provide materials and processes that minimize the volume of stored waste plastics and which allow recovery at the completion of a mission.     

Quantification of greenhouse gas emissions from waste management processes for municipalities--a comparative review focusing on Africa

The amount of greenhouse gases (GHG) emitted due to waste management in the cities of developing countries is predicted to rise considerably in the near future; however, these countries have a series of problems in accounting and reporting these gases. Some of these problems are related to the status quo of waste management in the developing world and some to the lack of a coherent framework for accounting and reporting of greenhouse gases from waste at municipal level. This review summarizes and compares GHG emissions from individual waste management processes which make up a municipal waste management system, with an emphasis on developing countries and, in particular, Africa. It should be seen as a first step towards developing a more holistic GHG accounting model for municipalities. The comparison between these emissions from developed and developing countries at process level, reveals that there is agreement on the magnitude of the emissions expected from each process (generation of waste, collection and transport, disposal and recycling). The highest GHG savings are achieved through recycling, and these savings would be even higher in developing countries which rely on coal for energy production (e.g. South Africa, India and China) and where non-motorized collection and transport is used. The highest emissions are due to the methane released by dumpsites and landfills, and these emissions are predicted to increase significantly, unless more of the methane is captured and either flared or used for energy generation. The clean development mechanism (CDM) projects implemented in the developing world have made some progress in this field; however, African countries lag behind.     

Development drivers for waste management.

This paper identifies six broad groups of drivers for development in waste management. Public health led to the emergence of formalized waste collection systems in the nineteenth century, and remains a key driver in developing countries. Environmental protection came to the forefront in the 1970s, with an initial focus on eliminating uncontrolled disposal, followed by the systematic increasing of technical standards. Today, developing countries seem still to be struggling with these first steps; while climate change is also emerging as a key driver. The resource value of waste, which allows people to make a living from discarded materials, was an important driver historically, and remains so in developing countries today. A current trend in developed countries is closing the loop, moving from the concept of 'end-of-pipe' waste management towards a more holistic resource management. Two underpinning groups of drivers are institutional and responsibility issues, and public awareness. There is no, one single driver for development in waste management: the balance between these six groups of drivers has varied over time, and will vary between countries depending on local circumstances, and between stakeholders depending on their perspective. The next appropriate steps towards developing a sustainable, integrated waste management system will also vary in each local situation.     

A new paradigm for waste management

The concept ‘waste' was assessed, and redefined as ‘an emerged quality of a substance'. A substance or object is qualified a waste when it is not used to its full potential'. Under this paradigm, any process can be used for the transformation of waste to remove this quality label, and the necessity of a systemic approach to the resource and waste management becomes obvious. Any substance, labelled waste or resource, is part of at least one material cycle. Material cycle modelling provides a convenient method of abstraction to present the system alternatives to decision-makers and emphasises the interdependence between the availability and fate of all atomic elements in primary production and waste management. The rearrangement and closing of material cycles, for example, opens the way to eliminate landfills of harmful residues and contributes to the conservation of resources. While the adoption of the new paradigm may lead to dramatic technological development, the consideration, appreciation and adoption of such integrated resource and waste systems by decision-makers must be adequately supported by the apt supply of accessible information on system structure, technology options and effects. To determine the scope of the decision support tool, four images of 2030's waste infrastructure were constructed. Public awareness and attitude were identified as the main parameters that determine the future context, apart from technological development, resource scarcity and final abatement of waste processing residues.     

Sustainable management measures for healthcare waste in China

This paper discusses actions aimed at sustainable management of healthcare wastes (HCW) in China, taking into account the current national situation in this field, as well as the requirements deriving from the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and the WHO recommendations. By the end of 2005, there were 149 low-standard HCW disposal facilities in operation in China, distributed throughout different areas. According to the National Hazardous Waste and Healthcare Waste Disposal Facility Construction Plan, 331 modern, high-standard, centralized facilities will be built up in China in municipal level cities. Although incineration is still the main technical option for HCW disposal in China, it is expected that, especially for medium and small size facilities, non-incineration technologies will develop quickly and will soon become the main technical option. The basic management needs – both from the point of view of pollution control and final disposal – have been defined, and a system of technical and environmental standards has been formulated and implemented; however, there are still some shortages. This is particularly true when considering the best available techniques and best environmental practices developed under the Stockholm Convention, with which the present technological and managing situations are not completely compliant. In this framework, the lifecycle (from generation to final disposal of wastes) of HCW and holistic approaches (technology verification, facilities operation, environmental supervision, environmental monitoring, training system, financial mechanism, etc.) towards HCW management are the most important criteria for the sustainable and reliable management of HCW in China.     

Terrestrial physical and chemical processes for liquid waste treatment

Experiences gained from full-scale evaluation of advanced treatment processes used for reclaiming wastewaters should help in the evaluation of potential treatment systems for treatment and reuse of water in space. Water Factory 21 is a 0.66 m³s⁻¹ (15 million gallons per day) water reclamation plant in California that has been in operation since 1976. The plant receives biologically treated wastewater. Lime treatment is effective for removal of heavy metals. Volatile organic constitutes are efficiently removed by air stripping. Non-volatile organic constituents are removed by activated carbon adsorption and reverse osmosis (RO). RO is a highly effective polishing step, and removes most of the remaining materials including inorganic salts, heavy metals, and organics. RO removed 85% of the total organic carbon, down to about 1 mg 1⁻¹, which is lower than in many treated drinking waters. The series of treatment processes used insured virus and pathogen removal, with lime treatment and chlorination together proving highly effective. Sufficient data has been collected to provide statistically reliable confidence limits to be set on the performance of each unit process.     

Local waste management constraints and waste administrators in China

Local level waste authorities and their officials directly interact and serve the people on behalf of higher governments. Given the influential positions they have on the quality of life of the citizens, these local waste authorities deserve more attention from researchers. This study throws light on the factors related to local waste management and administrators that have caused waste management failures in three mainland Chinese cities. Based on a survey conducted in 2002-2003, it was found that waste administrators in these cities are not professionally competent in their jobs and they are also not confident in using economic instruments to address waste management issues in their cities. These local waste authorities are generally under-funded, and funding politics has to some extent eroded the incentives to carry out the instructions of higher waste authorities. The community at large also does not respect local waste management work. The residents frequently litter, are unobservant of waste collection times and are unwilling to pay for waste collection service. All of these are handicapping environmentally sound waste management.     

Healthcare waste management in Asia

The risks associated with healthcare waste and its management has gained attention across the world in various events, local and international forums and summits. However, the need for proper healthcare waste management has been gaining recognition slowly due to the substantial disease burdens associated with poor practices, including exposure to infectious agents and toxic substances. Despite the magnitude of the problem, practices, capacities and policies in many countries in dealing with healthcare waste disposal, especially developing nations, is inadequate and requires intensification. This paper looks upon aspects to drive improvements to the existing healthcare waste management situation. The paper places recommendation based on a 12 country study reflecting the current status. The paper does not advocate for any complex technology but calls for changes in mindset of all concerned stakeholders and identifies five important aspects for serious consideration. Understanding the role of governments and healthcare facilities, the paper also outlines three key areas for prioritized action for both parties – budget support, developing policies and legislation and technology and knowledge management.     

Waste management for space station freedom

Because of the tremendous task of designing, testing, building and maintaining the waste systems for Space Station Freedom, different methods of managing these systems are now being developed. This paper summarizes some of those methods. The first task for the design engineer is to develop systems and hardware to handle waste in the special conditions of the space station. Different closed and open loop systems, along with the development of new hardware in these loops, are being tested to meet this task. Some of the new hardware to be discussed are water and air monitors, hazardous material handling, and plumbing hardware such as commodes, showers and clothes washers. The second task is to develop methods to manage the process of developing these systems. Some of the areas to manage are testing information, materials, facilities, people, budgets, time, safety, legal responsibilities and testing standards. The last task is to incorporate the new technologies for other areas besides space stations. Other areas would include long-duration space missions, lunar stations and other non-space applications.     

Stakeholder analysis for industrial waste management systems

Stakeholder approaches have been applied to the management of companies with a view to the improvement of all areas of performance, including economic, health and safety, waste reduction, future policies, etc. However no agreement exists regarding stakeholders, their interests and levels of importance. This paper considers stakeholder analysis with particular reference to environmental and waste management systems. It proposes a template and matrix model for identification of stakeholder roles and influences by rating the stakeholders. A case study demonstrates the use of these and their ability to be transferred to other circumstances and organizations is illustrated by using a large educational institution.