Airborne mesophilic fungal spores in various residential environments

In the present work viable fungal spore counts and flora of indoor air were compared in various residences. Total viable spore counts were lowest in the urban/suburban residences and highest in the rural residences. Moisture problems in the urban environment did not increase total viable spore count, but affected composition of fungal flora. In the rural environment, spore counts were much higher in the old houses than in the new ones. Penicillium was the most prevalent fungus in the air of all the residences studied. Airborne Aspergillus, Cladosporium spores and yeast cells were more common in the damp residences and the old rural houses than in the other residences.     

Airborne Cladosporium and other fungi in damp versus reference residences

Our previous study (Nevalainen et al., 1991, Envir. Int.17, 299–302) showed that airborne counts of total viable fungal spores in damp residences did not remarkably differ from those in reference residences. The results of the present study confirmed this finding. Indoor air spore counts varied considerably from residence to residence and even within the same residence. Thus, the counts were only occasionally high in the damp residences. Counts of airborne Cladosporium spp. spores and yeast cells were significantly higher in the damp residences than in the reference ones. The difference of yeast cell counts between the residence groups was explained by the difference in outdoor air, whereas Cladosporium spp. spores were mainly derived from indoors. Prevalence of Aspergillus spp. spores was also slightly higher in the damp residences than in the reference ones.     

城市居家环境空气真菌群落结构特征研究

居室环境质量的优劣与人类健康密切相关.成年人约80%～90%的时间是在室内度过,而且现代人们的生活越来越离不开空调,由于人体、房间和空调机在室内会形成了一个封闭的循环系统,容易使细菌、病毒、霉菌等微生物大量繁衍.因此,百货商场、学校教室、办公室和现代住宅等近年来成为了室内环境空气质量的研究热点.在北京市5个方向(东南西北中)共选取31户具有小孩的家庭于2009年11月～2010年10月进行试验,研究了城市居家环境空气真菌的群落结构特征.结果表明,从分离的225株空气真菌中共鉴定出24属,从鉴定出现的次数来看,其优势真菌属依次为青霉属(Penicillium)、枝孢属(Cladosporium)、曲霉属(Aspergillus)、链格孢属(Alternaria)和茎点霉属(Phoma),其中青霉属出现的次数占分离菌株总数的36%.居家环境中青霉属、枝孢属、曲霉属、链格孢属、丛梗孢属(Monilia)的出现频率较高,其中青霉属的出现频率在90%以上;浓度百分比较高的真菌依次为青霉属、枝孢属、曲霉属、无孢菌和链格孢属,它们浓度总和约占总浓度的65.0%及以上,其中青霉属浓度百分比为32.2%.在北京市取样的31户家庭中,空气真菌浓度范围为62～3 498 CFU.m-3,平均值为837 CFU.m-3.空气真菌总浓度与枝孢属、曲霉属、链格孢属浓度的季节变化特征基本一致,夏季明显高于春季、秋季和冬季(P<0.05*),冬季浓度最低,而青霉属浓度的季节变化则表现为春季较高,夏季、秋季和冬季没有显著差异(P>0.05*).北京市居家环境空气真菌浓度男孩家庭明显高于女孩家庭(P<0.05*),并且家庭空气真菌浓度与人均居住面积呈显著负相关.     

Health hazards related to conidia of Cladosporium—biological air pollutants in Poland, central Europe

The spores of Cladosporium Link. are often present in the air in high quantities and produce many allergenic proteins, which may lead to asthma. An aerobiological spore monitoring program can inform patients about the current spore concentration in air and help their physicians determine the spore dose that is harmful for a given individual. This makes it possible to develop optimized responses and propose personalized therapy for a particular sensitive patient. The aim of this study was to assess the extent of the human health hazard posed by the fungal genus Cladosporium. For the first time, we have determined the number of days on which air samples in Poland exceeded the concentrations linked to allergic responses of sensitive patients, according to thresholds established by three different groups(2800/3000/4000 spores per 1 m~3 of the air). The survey was conducted over three consecutive growing seasons(April–September, 2010–2012) in three cities located in different climate zones of Poland(Poznan, Lublin and Rzeszow). The average number of days exceeding 2800 spores per cubic meter(the lowest threshold) ranged from 61(2010) through 76(2011) to 93(2012), though there was significant variation between cities. In each year the highest concentration of spores in the air was detected in either Poznan or Lublin, both located on large plains with intensive agriculture. We have proposed that an effective, science-based software platform to support policy-making on air quality should incorporate biological air pollutant data,such as allergenic fungal spores and pollen grains.     

北京市居家空气微生物污染特征

在北京市选取31户有1岁至10岁儿童的家庭进行空气微生物取样,系统研究了室内家庭空气微生物污染特征.结果表明,北京市居家环境空气微生物总浓度变化范围为269～13066 CFU·m-3,均值为2658 CFU· m-3,空气细菌浓度变化范围为47 ～ 12341 CFU·m-3,均值为1821 CFU·m-3,空气真菌浓度变化范围为62～3498 CFU·m-3,均值为837 CFU·m-3.空气细菌和真菌浓度百分比分别为61.0％和39.0％,细菌浓度明显高于真菌浓度.居家环境优势细菌属依次为微球菌属(Micrococcus)、芽孢杆菌属(Bacillus)、葡萄球菌属(Staphylococcus)和库克菌属(Kocuria),4属细菌百分比约占63.1％ ～70.9％,优势真菌属为青霉属(Penicillium)、枝孢属(Cladosporium)、曲霉属(Aspergillus)、链格孢属(Alternaria)和茎点霉属(Phoma),分别约占总数的36.0％、17.8％、9.3％、5.3％和3.6％.文中最后针对北京市居家环境空气微生物污染的现状及其来源,从宠物饲养、空调清理、室内外优良环境的保持及垃圾处理、室内花卉种植等方面提出了治理建议.     

Fungal microcolonies on indoor surfaces — an explanation for the base-level fungal spore counts in indoor air

In the subarctic winter, fungal spores are found in indoor air even when outdoor spore levels are very low. The results of this study support an explanation that some indoor airborne fungal spores are derived from unnoticeable fungal microcolonies, which may develop on temporarily wet surfaces. Laboratory experiments on Penicillium verrucosum indicated that the fungus germinated on new wallpaper very quickly (about half an hour) under moist conditions. Hyphal growth and sporulation of the fungus on moist wallpaper occured within one day of incubation. In gravity-settling tape samples from occasionally wet surfaces in a suburban home, large spore aggregates, hyphal fragments with some spores and spores in the germination stage were found, indicating fungal growth. These experiments showed that fungal microcolonies can develop within a week on occasionally wet indoor surfaces.     

北京市室外空气真菌分布特征

通过定点取样研究北京市空气真菌的种类组成,浓度特征及其动态变化规律.监测结果表明,北京市空气真菌平均浓度为(1164.8±73.2)CFU.m^-3,浓度变异很大,变化范围为23.6～13959.5CFU.m^-3.空气中优势真菌为枝孢属(Cladosporium)、青霉属(Penicillium)、链格孢属(Alternaria)、曲霉属(Aspergillus)和无孢菌(non-sporing),其中枝孢属是绝对优势真菌,浓度约占真菌总浓度的1/3以上.文教区和公园绿地空气真菌浓度夏季和秋季较高,春季和秋季较低,而交通干线空气真菌浓度4季变化趋势不明显.文教区和公园绿地空气真菌浓度明显高于交通干线(p<0.05),文教区和公园绿地之间则没有显著差异.     

Microbial and size characterization of airborne particulate matter collected on sticky tapes along US–Mexico border

Particulate matter(PM) emissions from various sources can affect significantly human health and environmental quality especially in the Chihuahuan Desert region along US–Mexico border. The objective of this study was to use the low-cost sticky tape method to collect airborne PM for size characterization and identification of fungal spores. Sticky tape samplers were placed at 1.0 and 2.0 m above the ground surface at experimental sites in Ciudad Juárez, Mexico and at 0.6, 1.2 and 1.8 m at New Mexico sites, USA. Soil samples were collected in both countries to determine fungal diversity, texture and moisture content Dust particles collected from all of the experimental sites had a dominant texture of clay( 0.002 mm). The dominant textures identified from soil samples collected from the US and Mexican sites were loam and sandy clay loam, respectively. Alternaria, Penicillium and Fusarium were frequently found funguses in the US sites while Alternaria and Aspergillus were commonly observed in the Mexican sites. The sticky tapes also showed a similar diversity of fungal microorganisms present in the airborne PM at both Mexico and US sites Alternaria, Penicillium and Aspergillus were the three groups of airborne fungal microorganisms consistently present in the US and Mexican sites. The low-cost sticky tape method has the potential to be used for characterizing different airborne microorganisms and dust particles.     

氯灭活地下水源中3种优势真菌的效能与机制

地下水源中真菌大量繁殖会产生嗅味,引发毒性反应以及产生大量肉眼可见的絮状物,严重影响供水水质.以地下水源中3种优势真菌木霉属、青霉属、枝孢属为研究对象,以氯为消毒剂,通过研究真菌孢子胞内物质泄漏,胞外三磷酸腺苷(ATP),脱氧核糖核酸(DNA)和蛋白质增加及孢子形态变化,探明了氯灭活3种真菌孢子的效能与机制.结果表明,氯灭活真菌孢子符合一级动力学,满足Chick模型,3种真菌的耐氯性为:木霉属青霉属枝孢属,真菌孢子尺寸越大,亲水性越强,灭活效果越好.氯灭活后,胞内物质泄漏,胞外特征物质(ATP、DNA、蛋白质)显著增加;氯对细胞表面破坏严重,灭活后真菌孢子凹陷,表面褶皱.综上所述,氯首先作用于孢子表面,降低孢子的可培养性,进一步作用使细胞的通透性屏障受损,导致胞内特征物质释放,以致孢子死亡.     

浙北地区真菌气溶胶示踪物季节分布特征

于2014年12月—2015年11月收集了浙江北部地区4个采样点的PM2.5样品,利用高效液相色谱-串联质谱仪分析获得真菌气溶胶示踪物阿糖醇和甘露醇的浓度,研究了浙北地区真菌气溶胶的季节性变化特征及其来源.观测结果显示,浙北地区阿糖醇和甘露醇的年均浓度分别为(5.6±0.7)和(5.7±1.3)ng·m-3.真菌气溶胶示踪物夏季浓度最高,可能是由于当地夏季频繁的生物质燃烧和温暖湿润的气候条件促进了真菌孢子的释放;另外,在该地区真菌孢子对气溶胶中有机碳(OC)的贡献并不显著(1%).主成分分析显示,真菌气溶胶示踪物(阿糖醇、甘露醇)和生物质燃烧示踪物(左旋葡聚糖、甘露聚糖、半乳聚糖、nss-K+)在整个采样过程中都包含在同一个因子中,表明浙北地区大气中真菌气溶胶持续受到生物质燃烧排放源的影响.     

Avoidance behavior of Morone americana,Leiostomus xanthurus and Brevoortia tyrannus to strobe light as a method of impingement mitigation

The use of strobe lights and strobe light-bubble curtain combinations were evaluated as behavioral guidance systems to reduce impingement via avoidance behavior by estuarine fish. White perch (Morone americana), spot (Leiostomus xanthurus) and menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) were tested in an experimental flume for avoidance to strobe lights, bubble curtains and strobe light-bubble curtain combinations at different water velocities, strobe flash rates and light acclimation (light and dark). The possible accommodation of fish to strobe light was also tested using a microcomputer and on-line biomonitoring chamber examining alterations in breathing rates over time. Avoidance of strobe light ranged from 8–36% for white perch, 8–100% for spot and 8–68% for menhaden depending on the conditions tested. Statistical analyses indicated significant avoidance by white perch at most flash rates with a 0.2 ms⁻¹ flow rate and at 120 and 300 flashes min⁻¹ with 0.3 and 0.5 ms⁻¹ flows. Spot had significant avoidance under most conditions. Menhaden had significant avoidance for all flash rates at 0.2 ms⁻¹ flows and for 300 and 600 flashes min⁻¹ at flows of 0.3 and 0.5 ms⁻¹. All species exhibited little avoidance of bubble curtains alone. Strobe light-bubble curtain combinations had avoidance results of 3–58% for white perch, 21–85% for spot and 9–81% for menhaden. Spot and menhaden exhibited significant avoidance for most conditions at 0.2 and 0.5 ms⁻¹ flows. White perch had significant avoidance for most conditions at 0.2 ms⁻¹ flows, but no avoidance at 0.5 ms⁻¹. The biomonitoring system indicated that little, if any, accommodation took place during 24 h. Strobe light and strobe-bubble curtain combinations elicited the highest avoidance results at flash rates ≥300 min⁻¹ and low water velocities. Strobe light systems may reduce impingement rates but must be evaluated on site specific needs and conditions.     

Laboratory experiments on membrane filter sampling of airborne mycotoxins produced by Stachybotrys atra corda

A membrane filter method for sampling of airborne stachybotrystoxins was studied in the laboratory. Toxigenic strains of Stachybotrys atra on wallpaper, grain, hay and straw were used as toxin sources in the experiments. Air samples were collected on cellulose nitrate and polycarbonate membrane filters at air flow rates of 10–20 ℓ min⁻¹. After the filter sampling, the air was passed through methanol. The results showed that stachybotrystoxins (trichothecenes) were concentrated in airborne fungal propagules, and thus can be collected on filters. Polycarbonate filters with a pore size of 0.2 μm collected the highest percentage of toxic samples. The laboratory experiments indicated that polycarbonate filter sampling for the collection of airborne mycotoxins is a promising method for extension to field measurements.     

Fungal spores and pollen in particulate matter collected during agricultural activities in the Po Valley (Italy)

Airborne particulate matter (PM) containing fungal spores and pollen grains was sampled within a monitoring campaign of wheat threshing, plowing and sowing agricultural operations. Fungal spores and pollen grains were detected and identified on morphological basis. No studies were previously available about fungal spore and pollen content in agricultural PM in the Po Valley. Sampling was conducted in a Po Valley farmland in Mezzano (Ferrara, Italy). The organic particles collected were examined by scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer. Fungal spores and pollen grains were identified when possible at the level of species. The most frequent components of the organic particles sampled were spores of Aspergillus sp., which could represent a risk of developing allergies and aspergillosis for crop farmers.     

Potential bioremediation of mercury-contaminated substrate using filamentous fungi isolated from forest soil

The use of filamentous fungi in bioremediation of heavy metal contamination has been developed recently. This research aims to observe the capability of filamentous fungi isolated from forest soil for bioremediation of mercury contamination in a substrate. Six fungal strains were selected based on their capability to grow in 25 mg/L Hg2+-contaminated potato dextrose agar plates. Fungal strain KRP1 showed the highest ratio of growth diameter, 0.831, thus was chosen for further observation.Identification based on colony and cell morphology carried out by 18S rRNA analysis gave a 98%match to Aspergillus flavus strain KRP1. The fungal characteristics in mercury(Ⅱ) contamination such as range of optimum pH, optimum temperature and tolerance level were 5.5–7 and 25–35℃ and 100 mg/L respectively. The concentration of mercury in the media affected fungal growth during lag phases. The capability of the fungal strain to remove the mercury(Ⅱ) contaminant was evaluated in 100 mL sterile 10 mg/L Hg2+-contaminated potato dextrose broth media in 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks inoculated with 108spore/mL fungal spore suspension and incubation at 30℃ for 7 days. The mercury(Ⅱ) utilization was observed for flasks shaken in a 130 r/min orbital shaker(shaken) and nonshaken flasks(static) treatments. Flasks containing contaminated media with no fungal spores were also provided as control. All treatments were done in triplicate. The strain was able to remove 97.50%and 98.73% mercury from shaken and static systems respectively. A. flavus strain KRP1 seems to have potential use in bioremediation of aqueous substrates containing mercury(Ⅱ) through a biosorption mechanism.     

Contamination of aqueous samples with formate and acetate from ambient air

A sensitive ion chromatographic technique with detection limits of 1.9 and 6.2 μgℓ⁻¹ has been developed for the determination of formate and acetate ions, respectively, in aqueous solution. Using this technique, uncovered aqueous solutions have been found to absorb the corresponding acids readily from ambient air at rates of approximately 0.02–0.1 nM cm⁻² h⁻¹. Consequently, to prevent vapor diffusion and subsequent contamination of environmental samples with these organic acids, casual exposure to ambient air, particularly in a laboratory, should be minimized.     

Antifungal activity of the pygidial gland secretion of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Laemostenus punctatus</Emphasis> (Coleoptera: Carabidae) against cave-dwelling micromycetes

The antifungal potential of the pygidial gland secretion of the troglophilic ground beetle Laemostenus punctatus from a cave in Southeastern Serbia against cave-dwelling micromycetes, isolated from the same habitat, has been investigated. Eleven collected samples were analyzed and 32 isolates of cave-dwelling fungi were documented. A total of 14 fungal species were identified as members of the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria, Cladosporium, Rhizopus, Trichoderma, Arthrinium, Aureobasidium, Epicoccum, Talaromyces, and Fusarium. Five isolates were selected for testing the antifungal activity of the pygidial gland secretion: Talaromyces duclauxi, Aspergillus brunneouniseriatus, Penicillium sp., Rhizopus stolonifer, and Trichoderma viride. The microdilution method has been applied to detect minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimal fungicidal concentrations (MFCs). The most sensitive isolate was Penicillium sp., while the other isolates demonstrated a high level of resistance to the tested agent. L. punctatus has developed a special mechanism of producing specific compounds that act synergistically within the secretion mixture, which are responsible for the antifungal action against pathogens from the cave. The results open opportunities for further research in the field of ground beetle defense against pathogens, which could have an important application in human medicine, in addition to the environmental impact, primarily.     

The vertical distribution of aerosols and acid related compounds in air and cloudwater

Vertical profiles (surface to 5 km) of aerosol particle number concentration, NO_y′ mixing ratio, and cloudwater SO₄²⁻ and NO₃⁻ equivalent concentration were obtained in three field studies: North Bay, Ontario, during the summer of 1982 and the winter of 1983–1984, and Syracuse, New York, during the fall of 1984. The measurements from these locations and different seasons are compared. Generally, airborne concentrations are highest with air-mass back trajectories from the south and lowest with back trajectories from the north. For the southerly trajectories, median particle number concentrations (0.2–2 μm) near ground level (950 mb) vary from 1700 cm⁻³ during the summer project to 800 cm⁻³ during the winter project. At 700 mb, the south trajectory particle number concentration ranged between 60 and 170 cm⁻³. Median NO_y′ mixing ratios for southerly back trajectories were approximately 6 and 9 ppb at 950 mb and 0.4 and 0.8 ppb at 700 mb for the fall and winter projects, respectively. Comparison of particle number concentration profiles outside of cloud with cloud droplet plus interstitial aerosol particle number concentrations inside cloud indicate that cumulus clouds can transport aerosols vertically from below cloud base. In contrast, stratiform clouds have similar concentrations inside the clouds as outside at the same altitude. The vertical variations of cloudwater sulphate and nitrate concentrations and the NO₃⁻/SO₄²⁻ equivalent concentration ratio are discussed for each of the three field studies.     

Southern California air quality study: A search for methyl nitrate

Methyl nitrate, CH₃ONO₂, was measured by electron capture gas chromatography (EC-GC) under conditions which allowed resolution of methyl nitrate, PAN, and several chlorinated hydrocarbons. Calibrations involved both EC-GC andNO_x chemiluminescence and were in agreement with independent calibrations involving i.r. spectroscopy. The rate constant for photolysis of methyl nitrate in sunlight was< 2.3 × 10⁻⁶s⁻¹. Detection limits of field instruments were 0.1–0.4 ppb. Some 3000 EC-GC chromatograms grams of ambient air recorded between June and December 1987, during the Southern California Air Quality Study (SCAQS) at up to nine Southern California locations yielded only seven possible, but unlikely observations of methyl nitrate. Thus, methyl nitrate was only a minor component among nitrogenous air pollutants during SCAQS. The measured CH₃ONO₂/PAN ratios of<0.003–0.2 during SCAQS are discussed in terms of available kinetic data for PAN unimolecular decomposition (a major source of methyl nitrate), PAN thermal decomposition and CH₃ONO₂ photolysis.     

The investigation of air quality and acid rain over the Gulf of Mexico

A research cruise was conducted in the summer of 1986 by a group of scientist from the U.S.A. and Mexico to investigate air chemistry over the Gulf of Mexico. Chemical, physical, meteorological and oceanographic measurements were carried out to survey temporal and spatial variations of diverse parameters throughout the Gulf. Emphases were placed on air-sea-land exchange of gases and aerosols, natural air quality, transport of anthropogenic air pollution, and acid rain deposition to the Gulf. Although the prevailing winds were easterly from the sea during the cruise, the air was highly polluted with continental aerosols, probably caused by local shifting winds and the oscillation between sea breeze and land breeze. Aerosol number concentrations were measured from 10⁵ cm⁻³ at ports to 10³ cm⁻³ in the open Gulf. The average aerosol mass concentration was ∼25μg M⁻³, consisting of 60% insoluble crustal particles that contained Si, Al, Fe; 30% seasalt particles that contained Na⁺ and Cl⁻; and 10% anthropogenic sulfate and nitrate particles. Samples of rain water collected near the coast were acidic (pH ∼4). The concentrations of dimethyl sulfide correlated with bio-particle concentrations in surface seawater and could be a significant precursor of atmospheric SO₄²⁻ particles. The life cycles of the aerosols in the Gulf, including sources, transport, transformation, and wet and dry deposition are discussed.     

Environmental chamber for study of the deposition flux of gaseous pollutants to material surfaces

A specially designed recirculating environmental chamber was constructed to study the environmental factors affecting the deposition of pollutant gases to the surface of stone and other building materials. The chamber and sample holder are designed to place samples in an aerodynamically well-defined air flow. The system is designed to permit use of radioactive ³⁵SO₂ as a tracer if necessary. A wide range of typical environmental conditions can be continuously maintained in the chamber. Wind speeds in the test section can range up to about 5 ms⁻¹, exposing replicate samples to air flow that is uniform to within approximately 3%. Relative humidity in the chamber can be maintained to within 3%, and SO₂, NO₂ and O₃ concentrations in the chamber air can be maintained to within 4%. Test results indicate SO₂ deposition and wind speed in the chamber are closely correlated, allowing for a direct determination of the surface resistance (r_c) component of the SO₂ deposition velocity to various test materials. Initial studies of SO₂ deposition to limestone and marble indicate the r_c values are approximately 1.3 s cm⁻¹ for fresh limestone and 34 s cm⁻¹ for fresh marble at 75% relative humidity, 26°C and 50 ppb SO₂.