Expert views on sustainability and technology implementation

The role of non-timber forest products in sustaining rural economies of the southern African region has been underestimated because of inadequate policy recognition. As a result, factors affecting the sustainability of these important resources are being undermined. The aim of the paper is to examine trade in two selected NTFPs and implications for sustaining the resource base in Zimbabwe and South Africa. In eastern Zimbabwe, baobab (Adansonia digitata) bark is harvested for craft purposes, but in danger of destruction in the short term as a result of harvesting and trade arrangements. Unless appropriate harvesting and marketing mechanisms including harvesting cycles and adaptive management are adopted, the baobabs and livelihoods of humans will be threatened in the next decade. For wood products from communal woodlands in the South African study, uncontrolled trade poses danger to sustaining the natural woodlands. In both case studies, the role of non-resident NTFP dealers is a source of inevitable threat in promoting sustainable harvesting and trade. Market forces of demand and supply factors are identified as opportunities or threats and presented in a conceptualised framework. Additionally, the NTFP sector management will need to include opportunistic improvement of small-scale agropastoralism.     

Use-Values of Tree Species in a Communal Forest Reserve in Northeast Peru

Abstract: Several rural villages in the department of Loreto, in northeast Peru, have sought to protect local control over access to natural resources by establishing communal reserves. Most of Loreto's villages have heterogeneous populations of detribalized Indians and mestizos, called ribereños (people of the riverbanks). The communal reserves of ribereño villages currently have no legal status, but are regulated by written communal rules and are actively guarded by community members.
An inventory of trees greater than 10 cm in diameter was conducted in one ribereño communal reserve, a fifty-year-old secondary forest. A doubly random sampling procedure was used producing a total sample size of 7.5 ha Tree species utilized by community members were found to comprise 60% of the total number of species sampled. Uses were divided into six categories: food construction, crafts remedy, commerce, and other "use-values" were assigned to each species, based on an ordinal system developed by Prance et al. (1987). The presence or absence of markets for specific forest products was found to be a major determinant of that species' overall use-value to ribereño populations. Neither the existing markets nor the lack of firm land or resource tenure for ribereño communal reserves encourages sustained management of forest resources.     

Direct-use values of woodland resources consumed and traded in a South African village

SUMMARY

This paper examines the contribution of secondary resources harvested from a savanna ecosystem to household income in Thorndale village, South Africa. The valuation of these resources provides a key tool for adopting sustainable development practices. The study shows the relevance of the dependence of rural people on secondary resources and implications for social and economic equity. Fuelwood, edible herbs and thatch grass contributed 80.6% ($492.53) of the total gross direct-use value ($559.46) of all the resources per household per annum. The net direct-use value of eight directly harvested resources was $455.11 after accounting for the opportunity cost of labour. The value of secondary resources traded amounted to $126.62 per household, equivalent to 22.6% of values from direct consumption, suggesting a high degree of dependence of villagers on natural resources harvested for household consumption. There were high relative direct-use values for fuelwood (44%) and edible herbs (25.9%) reflecting the high energy requirement, and substitute for cultivated vegetables, respectively. It was generally perceived that resources were in short supply probably due to the level of dependence, and as a coping strategy.     

Urban fuelwood demand and markets in a small town in South Africa: Livelihood vulnerability and alien plant control

Fuelwood is the primary energy for most households throughout the developing world. With increasing urbanization and declining local availability of fuelwood, a growing proportion of households obtain their fuelwood by purchasing it. These fuelwood markets are the key nexus in supply and demand scenarios and can be potentially significant points for intervention to address energy security amongst the urban poor. This paper reports on the fuelwood demand and marketing in a small town in South Africa. Despite the availability of more modern fuels and state subsidization of electricity, fuelwood was still used by half the households. Annual demand was 1.2 t per household. Over half of the households bought their fuelwood requirements because local stocks were limited. Those households that did collect their own fuelwood were significantly poorer than households that purchased fuelwood, as well as households that did not use fuelwood at all. Fuelwood markets operated through 45-60 vendors who transported fuelwood from further afield. Income from the fuelwood trade was low, but was strongly linked to hours worked. Thus, vendors working a full week did earn a meaningful income, especially in the context of high unemployment in the area. Fuelwood vendors also provided casual employment opportunities for unskilled labour. Most vendors harvested fuelwood from commonage lands, with most of the wood being from alien species. Local stocks of wood are declining in the face of constant transformation of commonage to residential areas, and a national water and biodiversity conservation programme to eradicate alien plants. This decline poses a threat to the financial viability of fuelwood markets. Yet, an opportunity exists to incorporate the vendors into the alien plant clearing programme, since they already perform such a function.     

Transboundary conservation: Development implications for communities in KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

Conservation is increasingly promoted as a sustainable development instrument in Southern Africa, particularly for remote rural communities. Conservation and development schemes are marketed as community-based projects providing local empowerment through the creation of jobs and cash stemming from protected areas, as well as increased biodiversity protection by local communities whose jobs are dependent on the resource. Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs), mega Peace Parks that cross international borders, are one of the latest conservation and development paradigms in Southern Africa. TFCAs have gained broad support, including government recognition as a development tool. However, there has been minimal research on the impact of TFCAs on local communities. This paper seeks to provide an empirical case study of a South African community bordering the Lubombo TFCA (South Africa, Swaziland, Mozambique). Results are presented that indicate the Mbangweni community in KwaZulu-Natal could experience decreased access to social, natural, and economic resources as a result of the Peace Park.     

Natural resource use,income and dependence among San and Mier communities bordering Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park,southern Kalahari,South Africa

Contemporary strategies for natural resource management espouse the need to integrate local people and their livelihood needs into biodiversity conservation projects to achieve sustainable ‘development and ecological integrity’. Valuation of natural resource use provides empirical evidence and conceptual arguments of local people's dependence on these resources, which could be factored into biodiversity conservation planning. Based on household surveys and key informant interviews, this study looked at the contribution of dryland natural resources to the livelihoods of two culturally different but neighbouring communities, the San and Mier, bordering Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa. Overall, natural resources represented an important livelihood source for the San, contributing on an average 32% of total annual income, compared to 9% for the Mier. Fuelwood was the predominant contributor to natural resource incomes in both cases. Income quintile analysis showed that dependence on natural resources decreased moving to higher income groups for Mier households, but increased with income for San households. Well-off households still derived higher total income from natural resources; often from the more lucrative sources of such income, notably from fuelwood sales. Contextual factors such as culture and social institutions, among others, influenced access to, and consequently the use of, particular resources and the value of these to households. Sustainable natural resource management interventions should consider these disparities in patterns of natural resource dependence among different income groups.     

Balancing fuelwood and biodiversity concerns in rural Nepal

An agent-based model is developed to explore the pattern of fuelwood collection in an 1178 ha forest area in rural mountainous Nepal. The model relates fuelwood collection intensity and amount of dead wood available for collection to the diversity of polypore species, a group of strictly dead wood dependent fungi which can be used as indicators of the biodiversity associated with dead wood. By analysing scenarios of increased collection the model shows that the relative impact on polypore diversity is rising more rapidly than the time used for collection. This indicates that better market access in the future could potentially imply a major threat to biodiversity associated with dead wood.     

Direct use values of communal resources in Bokong and Tsehlanyane in Lesotho: whither the commons?

SUMMARY

This paper presents a comprehensive assessment of the contribution of communal resources to households in Bokong and Tsehlanyane in Lesotho. It argues that communal resources are an extremely important element in the livelihoods of people in the study area. It uses households as units of analysis in order to gain an understanding of the role that communal resources play at the micro level before any extrapolations are made to the regional and national levels. A household survey, guided by a detailed semistructured questionnaire, was used. Ten newly constructed houses and vegetable garden enclosures were sampled to categorize and count all poles used to build them. The amount of thatch grass used in building those houses was also estimated. The results indicated that communal resources play a central role in the livelihoods of people in the area with firewood ($1492), crops ($1363) and wild vegetables ($774) recording the highest annual use values per household^?1 yr^?1. The total present value was estimated at $3899 household^?1 yr^?1 with firewood, crops and wild vegetables constituting 93% of that value. The study further demonstrated that communal resources are used across the entire income spread in the area, thereby negating the general belief that they are a preserve of the poor. Finally, the results demonstrated that very little value is derived through trading of resources both within and outside the area but through direct consumption within households invariably escaping national economic accounting. With declining employment rates in Lesotho due to continued retrenchments in the South African mining industry, communal resources in the country remain an indispensable resource that must be carefully managed for the common good.     

Growing of trees in home-gardens by rural households in the Eastern Cape and Limpopo Provinces,South Africa

Trees provide a wide range of goods and services to rural households which, when incorporated into their livelihood strategies, help reduce their vulnerability to adversity. Governments and policy makers often ignore the contribution made by trees and consequently resources are focussed on cash crops and livestock. Villagers in the Eastern Cape and Limpopo Province, South Africa utilise a range of trees from home-gardens for various purposes, although predominantly for fruit and shade. Trees are either planted or actively retained in households' home-gardens. There were noticeable differences between the villages in the Eastern Cape and those in Limpopo Province, particularly with respect to the overall density of trees per hectare and the number of species per household, both being significantly greater in Limpopo Province. The five most preferred species were listed for each village, revealing a preference for exotic fruit trees in Limpopo Province and a mix of exotic fruit trees and shade trees in the Eastern Cape. Households also retained useful indigenous species, predominantly fruit-bearing species. A range of factors constrain tree growing in home-gardens and households engage in practices to grow and maintain their trees. Not all of these constraints and practices were significantly different between the various localities.     

Managing Protected Woodlands: Fuelwood Collection and Law Enforcement in Lake Malawi National Park

Abstract: We examined the decisions women make in their collection of fuelwood within a protected area in Malawi. We used law enforcement data and behavioral observations of fuelwood harvesting practices to examine the risk of detection and penalties posed by law enforcement activities. Our results indicate that, at their current levels, law enforcement patrols have little effect on wood collection practices. The low risk of detection and light penalties appear to favor illegal wood collection, which is practiced by the majority of women. Alternative strategies should be pursued to enhance the conservation of the woodland and its management as a fuelwood resource for local communities.     

Conservation in a Region of Political Instability: Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, Uganda

Abstract: Bwindi Impenetrable is the most important forest in Uganda for conservation of biodiversity. It contains over half the world's mountain gorillas. It is surrounded by densely populated agricultural land and lies within a region of political instability. Gazetted as a forest reserve in 1932, little forest now remains outside its boundaries. Transformation of nearby communal swampland to farmland, much owned by a few individuals, shows the probable fate of Bwindi if it had not been declared a protected area. Widespread illegal logging and other activities were among reasons why the status of the forest was raised to national park in 1991. This resulted in local resentment, fed by inadequate consultation and concern about the local people's loss of access to resources. Fires were set in the forest and threats made against the gorillas. Three schemes to provide benefits from the existence of the forest to communities and involve them in park management were then instituted: agreements allowing controlled harvesting of resources in the park, receipt of some revenue from tourism, and establishment of a trust fund partly for community development. Tension between people and park has been reduced. This case demonstrates the importance of protected areas and community involvement in such circumstances. Community support is especially critical, as here, when resources available to park managers are limited and political instability endemic.     

Socio-economic differentiation in the trade of wildlife species for traditional medicines in the Lowveld,South Africa: Implications for resource management initiatives

Surveys of trade in wildlife products utilised in traditional medicine were conducted between 1997 and 1999 on the western boundary of the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Although the extent of trade and numbers of people operating in this sector were lower than other regions of South Africa, this study again highlighted the value of indigenous wildlife products to subsistence economies. Apart from cultural diversity, socioeconomic differentiation occurred at a number of levels. (i) There were socio-economic differences between the traders and vendors. (ii) Gender differences were apparent, with women earning significantly less than men and having to undergo more social challenges in their operation in the market place. (iii) Operational differences were noted between the vendors and traders, as well as between the street and pension day vendors. (iv) Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) highlighted the socio-economic differentiation at the household level, emphasizing in particular one of the most vulnerable groups, the elderly. The potential influence of this socio-economic differentiation needs to be considered during the development of Community-Based Conservation programmes, if the dual aims of conserving biodiversity and improving the lives and livelihoods of those who traditionally rely on medicinal plants are to be met.     

Gender roles and economics of exploitation,processing and marketing of bivalves and impacts on forest resources in the Sanaga Delta region of Douala-Edea Wildlife Reserve,Cameroon

Socio-economic surveys were carried out in the Malimba and Mouanko communities in the Sanaga delta region of the Douala-Edea Wildlife Reserve, Cameroon, on the exploitation, processing and marketing of bivalves, with emphasis on gender aspects and impacts on the surrounding forest resources. Sixty people from 16 villages were sampled using a structured questionnaire with field observations documented during the peak fishing period (November 2000–June 2001). Results indicated a strong gender differentiation in the activity, with males dominating bivalve harvesting and shell processing and women dominating the processing for meat. Monthly bivalve meat production of 32.9 tons (197.4 tons per year) generated revenues of 65.4 million FCFA (74.9 million per year). Monthly shell production was put at 1380 tons (8040 tons per year) generating a monthly revenue of 74 million FCFA (444 million per year). Problems faced during exploitation, processing and marketing stages include physical, health and socio-economic: use of very depreciable rudimentary tools, shell injuries, fire and hot water burns, insect pests; blindness, deafness; inadequate storage facilities, transport and remoteness of the area. Bivalve processing activities using wood contributed to a total annual harvest of 50 986 m³ from the surrounding forest. Sustainable conservation measures geared towards poverty alleviation are proposed.     

Monitoring,mapping and health risk assessment of fluoride in drinking water supplies in rural areas of Maku and Poldasht,Iran

The aim of this study was to investigate and determine fluoride concentrations in drinking water supplies in rural areas of Maku and Poldasht in West Azerbaijan Province, the northwest of Iran. Fluorosis risk assessment and characterization was also investigated. Fluoride concentrations mapping was accomplished by using the GIS system. Totally, 356 water samples, including one sample in each season, were collected from 89 water supplies providing water for 95 and 61 rural areas of Maku and Poldasht, respectively. According to the results, in Maku and Poldasht, 25 and 30 rural areas had contaminated water sources, respectively. Average annual fluoride concentrations ranged from 3.04 to 7.31 mg/l in the contaminated villages of Maku, which is about 2–4.8 times higher than the maximum standard level of the Iranian drinking water standard, and 4.52–8.21 mg/l in the contaminated areas of Poldasht, which is about 3–5.47 times higher than the maximum standard level. The maximum fluoride level was determined 11.12 mg/l and 10.98 mg/l in one of villages of Maku and Poldasht Counties in summer, respectively. Neither in Maku nor in Poldasht, water resources showed dental cavity risk, while dental fluorosis risk and skeletal fluorosis risk were very significant in some villages of both cities. Children were at most risk of fluorosis. New alternative water supplies for the contaminated villages if possible, consumption of bottled water and application of reverse osmosis are recommended as remedial actions in the contaminated areas.

     

Volume and financial value of species traded in the medicinal plant markets of Gauteng,South Africa

The demand for traditional medicinal plants and products in South Africa has created an extensive cross-border industry involving thousands of harvesters and traders. The market values of individual taxa vary considerably. Pricing structures fluctuate between markets and over time as the cost of harvesting species varies depending on a gatherer's access to the resources and the proximity of markets to the harvesting sites. This paper estimates trade values, describes the prices paid for 22 plant resources, investigates pricing structures relative to the mass/volume sold and the factors that influence the market price for plants. There is an inverse and disproportionate relationship between the price per kilogram (R/kg) and mass of the product sold. The smaller the quantity sold, the higher the R/kg sale values are relative to sales of larger quantities. This relationship is evident in different plant part types (e.g. bark and bulbs), species and markets (shops and street markets). Given the high mass sold relative to the price, bulbs, like bark, have the lowest R/kg values compared to other products like roots, fruits and leaves. The prices paid for heavier/denser species is thus disproportionate to the mass sold. If the relative values are used as an indicator of plant vulnerability (assuming high values indicate greater vulnerability), then bias is created in favour of 'lighter' and less dense plant parts typically sold in small quantities because of the nature of the plant part and the manner in which it is marketed and required by customers.     

Socioeconomics and sources of livelihood security in Central Himalaya,India: a case study

ABSTRACT

This case study was conducted in Himalayan watershed to understand traditional farming and socio-economic status of the people in Kumaon Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. In spite of high literacy rate in this area, their livelihood security is reliant on traditional farming practices that include agroforestry beside forest produce. More than 85% farming is rainfed and managed in a traditional way. Land holding size owned by farmers in the area extended from 0.57 to 2.57 ha but majority of farmers (51–80%) had farms of size less than 0.50 ha. The study revealed that forests provided 73–79% of required energy from fuelwood and more than 81% fodder. Agroforestry, livestock (dairy and poultry/goat rearing) and labour employment are the major sources of income to the people in the watershed. The income of people was positively correlated with livestock rearing and traditional farming.     

Determinants of the marginal willingness to pay for improved domestic water and irrigation in partially electrified Rwandan villages

Access to water for domestic and irrigation uses remains limited across Sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in rural areas. While the technical feasibility of implementing innovative technologies to improve water supply has been often evaluated, less is known about the drivers that motivate users to pay for obtaining the inherent benefits of improved water supply. In this article, the determinants of the marginal willingness to pay (mWTP) for improved domestic and irrigation water are investigated. For this purpose, a contingent valuation study is performed in rural Rwanda. This study uses survey data from 316 households situated in 8 villages, in which ~20% of the households receive electricity thanks to microgrids powered by solar energy. It is found that the mWTP for improved domestic water supply is influenced by the proportion of children in the household, business ownership, and satisfaction with water quantity and quality. The mWTP for irrigation is determined by respondent education, business ownership and crop area planted. This paper contributes to the literature by allowing a comparison of the determinants of the mWTP for improved domestic water supply to the determinants of the mWTP for irrigation. Another contribution is to examine the mWTP for improved water infrastructure in partially electrified villages. Identifying areas with high marginal benefits from water can guide infrastructure investment and electrification efforts while improving well-being and increasing revenues in rural areas.     

Cultivated land – a scarce commodity in a densely populated rural area in South Wollo,Ethiopia

Cultivated and settlement areas were studied in a small area (14 km2) in South Wollo, Ethiopia, by aerial photos, satellite images, field observations and interviews. Areas for cultivation/rural settlement decreased a few per cent between 1958 and 2013. Cultivated land per household slowly decreased in 1958–2003 but in 2003–2013 the annual decrease was 3–4 times higher. New farm buildings are often built on cultivated land, and abandoned buildings areas return to cultivation. Rainwater harvesting ponds have increased the areas with perennial crops that are important as a source of income. Tin roofed buildings are signs of improved livelihood. Very small farm size and rain-dependent agriculture combined with climate variability make food security vulnerable. Land-use inventories including remote sensing and local knowledge would be a valuable approach to assess livelihood needs. Further, it should involve decision makers at different levels, but local agricultural extension officers may play a central role.     

Economic and Social Dimensions of Environmental Behavior: Balancing Conservation and Development in Bhutan

Abstract: One of the primary approaches to environmental conservation emphasizes economic development. This conservation‐and‐development approach often ignores how development affects sociocultural characteristics that may motivate environmental behaviors (actions that actively benefit or limit one's negative impacts on the environment). Evolutionary anthropologists espouse a theoretical perspective that supports the conservation‐and‐development approach. Others believe sociocultural factors are the foundation of environmental behavior and worry that development will erode the values and norms that may shape such behavior. My research assistants and I surveyed 170 individuals from eight villages in two communities in Bhutan to explore whether economic (wealth, market integration) or social (religious behaviors, environmental values, social capital) factors are better indicators of environmental behavior. I used multilevel modeling to analyze use of fuelwood, use of agricultural chemicals, and tree planting, and to determine whether social norms were associated with these behaviors. Although economic factors were more often associated with these behaviors than social factors, local conditions and control variables were the best indicators of behaviors. Furthermore, economic factors were not always associated with positive environmental outcomes. Instead, farmers attempted to make the best economic decisions given their circumstances rather than seeking to conserve resources. Although religion was not a strong predictor of any of the behaviors I examined, I found evidence that the understanding of Buddhist philosophy is growing, which suggests that social factors may play a more prominent role as Bhutan's development progresses. My results highlight the need for conservation planners to be aware of local conditions when planning and implementing policies aimed at motivating environmental behaviors and that economic and social motivations for conservation may not be mutually exclusive.     

Decentralized wastewater treatment technologies and management in Chinese villages

Problems treating sewage in rural areas in China have attracted increasing attention in recent years. However, only 6% of rural areas had spray drainage and wastewater treatment systems by the end of 2010. It is necessary to assess the technologies currently used so that sewage treatment in rural areas can be developed appropriately, to provide reliable and affordable waste- water treatment, in these areas. We evaluated the sewage treatment technologies currently used in rural areas by conducting case studies on 62 facilities that had each been operating for at least one year. Our study was carried out between 2009 and 2011, and the aim was to assess the situation during that period and assess any problems involved in decentralized sewage treatment in villages. We found that decentralized sewage treatment is the most popular wastewater treatment method in villages, and that the most common primary treatment technology used in rural areas is the septic tank. Our investigation highlights the need to establish standards for assessing effluent quality, including a range of target pollutants. Our results also show that effluents should be reused to meet the local environmental requirements in different areas, especially in ecologically sensitive areas.