Diversity,endemism and economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian Himalaya

SUMMARY

The rich plant diversity of the Indian Himalaya is utilized by the native communities in various forms as medicine, edible/food, fodder, fuel, timber, agricultural tools, etc. Among these, wild edible plants form an important source as a supplement/substitute food in times of scarcity for native communities. Because land holdings are small and subsistence agriculture prevails, the natives gather many wild plants for food. This paper presents an inventory of wild edible plants of Indian Himalaya used by local communities. Over 675 wild plant species, representing 384 genera and 149 families, are used as food/edible and their various parts are either consumed raw, roasted, boiled, fried, cooked or in the form of oil, spice, seasoning material, jams, pickles, etc. The species were analysed for diversity in different phytogeographical provinces, altitudinal distribution, endemism, origin and potentials. West Himalaya shows the highest diversity (50.96%) of edible plants and East Himalaya the maximum number of endemics (18 taxa) and wild relatives of economic plants (39 taxa). Mass scale propagation, dissemination of information packages to local inhabitants to ensure that wild edibles remain as a resource for income generation, and strategies for conservation and management are recommended.     

Effect of Aegle marmelos and Hibiscus rosa sinensis leaf extract on glucose tolerance in glucose induced hyperglycemic rats (Charles foster)

In an effort to test the hypoglycemic activity of Aegle marmelos and Hibiscus rosa sinensis in glucose induced hyperglycemic rats, their alcoholic leaf extracts were studied. Both the groups of animals receiving either. A. marmelos or H. rosa sinensis leaf extract for seven consecutive days, at an oral dose equivalent to 250 mg kg-1 showed significant improvements in their ability to utilize the external glucose load. Average blood glucose lowering caused by A. marmelos and H. rosa sinensis was 67% and 39% respectively, which shows that former significantly (p < 0.001) improves the glucose tolerance curve. The magnitude of this effect showed time related variation with both the plants. Efficacy of A. marmelos and H. rosa sinensis was 71% and 41% of glybenclamide, respectively. These data throw some light on the possible mechanism of hypoglycemic activity of both the plants. The mechanism of action could be speculated partly to increased utilization of glucose, either by direct stimulation of glucose uptake or via the mediation of enhanced insulin secretion.     

Biodiversity status of a protected area in West Himalaya: Askot Wildlife Sanctuary

SUMMARY

Biodiversity of a protected area of West Himalaya (Askot Wildlife Sanctuary) was studied and analysed for landscape, faunal and floral diversity. The forest and pasture land, ideal habitats for the flora and fauna, covered nearly 52% and 12%, respectively, of total reported area. Among the fauna Himalayan musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster), thar (Himitragus jemlahicus), snow leopard (Panthera uncia), koklas (Pucrassia macrolophas), monal (Lophophorus impejanus) and snow cock (Tetragalus tibetanus) are threatened species. Plant diversity is represented by 1262 species of vascular plants (Angiosperm 1112, Gymnosperm 7, Pteridophytes 143 taxa). Diversity of the species within families, genera, habitats, communities and along vertical gradient zone was analysed. Maximum diversity existed in the family Orchidaceae (120 taxa), genera Polystichum (13 taxa), altitude zone (1001–2000 m; 860 taxa), habitat (forest; 623 taxa) and community (Banj oak: 92 taxa). Seventy-one families were found to be monotypic. Species were further analysed for ethnobotanical use (medicine: 70, edible: 55, fodder: 115, fuel: 31, house building: 13 etc.), domesticated diversity (crops: 19, vegetables: 26, fruits: 16), agroforestry or marginal, threatened and endemic diversity. Similarity in species composition within the habitats indicated maximum similarity in areas of shrubberies and alpine meadows/ slopes (71.65%) and exposed open/grassy slopes and shady moist places (47.32%). 432 (34.2%) taxa are native to Indian Himalaya of which 24 are endemic and 235 are near endemics. 65.8% of taxa are represented in the neighbouring areas and other regions of the globe. Ten taxa occurring in the Sanctuary have been already recorded in the Red Data Book of Indian Plants. Conservation and management of species is focused.     

Assessment of cadmium,chromium, and copper levels in market fruit samples in Meerut,North India

The levels of cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), and copper (Cu) were assessed in 24 fruit species in Meerut, North India using atomic absorption spectrometry. Data showed that Cd concentrations in fruits except banana, pomegranate, papaya, orange, and cherry were above the recommended maximum allowable limit of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)/World Health Organization (WHO) (0.2 µg/g). Average Cr concentrations in all analyzed fruit samples were also found higher than the safe limit of FAO/WHO (2.3 µg/g). In contrast, fruits viz. banana, lychees, papaya, Indian apple, Asian apple, and tiger nut showed concentration of Cu below the recommended safe limit (40 µg/g). Our study demonstrated that concentration of studied heavy metals in all tested samples varied according to fruit species and respective contaminants. Data suggest that more strict rules/standards need to be applied by National/International regulatory agencies in order to make these important fruit items free from heavy metals contamination and protect the consumer.     

Use and Misuse of Forest-harvested Fruits in the Iquitos Area

Abstract: Of 193 fruit species observed to be regularly consumed in the region surrounding Iquitos, Peru, 120 species are exclusively wild-harvested and 19 more originate from both wild and cultivated sources. The wild-harvested fruits of 57 species belonging to 24 different plant families are sold in the Iquitos market and are very important in the economy and diets of the area Nearly half of the Iquitos fruit vendors sell wild-harvested fruits (if fruits used as vegetables or starch sources are excluded), and over half of the fruit species sold are wild-harvested Many fruit species consumed at Iquitos differ from those consumed in other parts of Amazonia Although some native fruit species are beginning to be grown as crops, the wild populations of these high-potential species are being rapidly depleted by destructive harvesting techniques as market pressure begins to build In the last few years, the availability of several of the most popular fruit species has decreased markedly. If nondestructive sustained yield harvesting of resources such as wild-harvested fruits is to play its suggested important role in tropical forest conservation, much stronger efforts will be needed to prevent destructive overharvesting of these potentially significant resources.     

Antifungal activity of a flavonol glycoside from the leaves of bog myrtle (Myrica gale)

Summary The antifungal activity of kaempferol-3-(2,3-diacetoxy-4-p-coumaroyl)rhamnoside, a new flavonol glycoside isolated from the leaves ofMyrica gale, has been investigated. The flavonoid was found to have varying inhibitory activity against five species of fungi isolated from the leaves ofMyrica gale in the field.     

The roles of echolocation and olfaction in two Neotropical fruit-eating bats, Carollia perspicillata and C. castanea, feeding on Piper

We studied the echolocation and foraging behavior of two Neotropical frugivorous leaf-nosed bats (Carollia perspicillata, C. castanea: Phyllostomidae) in a flight cage. To test which cues Carollia uses to detect, identify, and localize ripe Piper fruit, their preferred natural food, we conducted experiments under semi-natural conditions with ripe, unripe, and artifical fruits. We first offered the bats ripe fruits and documented their foraging behavior using multiflash stereophotography combined with simultaneous sound recordings. Both species showed a similar, stereotyped foraging pattern. In searchflight, the bats circled through the flight cage in search of a branch with ripe fruit. After finding such a branch, the bats switched to approach behavior, consisting of multiple exploration flights and the final approach when the bats picked up the fruit at its tip and tore it off in flight. Our behavioral experiments revealed that odor plays an important role in enabling Carollia to find ripe fruit. While foraging, Carollia always echolocated and produced multiharmonic, frequency-modulated (FM) signals of broad bandwidth, high frequency, short duration, and low intensity. We discriminated an orientation phase (mostly a single pulse per wingbeat) and an approach phase (groups of two to six pulses per wing beat). We conclude from the bats' behavioral reaction to real and artificial fruit as well as from characteristic patterns in their echolocation behavior that during exploration flights, Carollia changes from primarily odor-oriented detection and initial localization of ripe fruit to a primarily echo-oriented final localization of the position of the fruit. Received: 27 March 1997 / Accepted after revision: 28 February 1998     

Availability and Extraction of Forest Products in Managed and Primary Forest around a Dayak Village in West Kalimantan, Indonesia

We examined the density and abundance of marketable products in managed forest (rubber gardens, fruit gardens, and dry rice fallows) and in primary forest surrounding the Dayak village of Kembera, near Gunung Palung National Park, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. We calculated the proportion of trees that were marketable and useful for local consumption by counting and identifying trees in each managed forest type, and we documented extraction of products through interviews. Villagers harvested four marketable tree products: tengkawang seeds ( Shorea stenoptera ), durian fruits (various Durio spp.), rubber ( Hevea brasiliensis ), and timber, especially Bornean ironwood ( Eusideroxylon zwageri ). We inventoried trees at least 20 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) of marketed species from 0.4-ha plots in primary forest ( n = 8) and from 0.1-ha plots in each managed forest type ( n = 10–11). With the exception of timber, the density of trees producing a marketable product was significantly higher in the forest type managed for that product than the density of the marketed species, or of similar wild species, in primary forest. Total abundance (product of density and available area) of durian and tengkawang was greater in primary forest; however, villagers gathered these products only from managed forest. We infer from this choice a greater efficiency of harvesting from trees in dense stands near the village. Historically, this choice resulted in deliberate development of fruit gardens in preference or in addition to gathering from the more distant, primary forest. Because of low product density in primary forest, extractive forest reserves or buffer zones designed to encourage the production of fruits such as tengkawang or durian may not provide a sufficient incentive for the protection of primary forest around Kembera and other Dayak villages near Gunung Palung National Park.     

贵州万山汞矿地区耐汞野生植物研究

在贵州万山地区废弃汞矿堆和矿山附近,受长期高剂量汞暴露的影响经过的自然选择,该地区出现了一些能耐受汞毒性的生态型植物。对汞耐受及汞富集植物的筛选对于汞污染土壤的植物修复具有一定的现实意义。通过对万山梅子溪地区汞污染土壤及汞耐受植物采样调查发现,该区域采样土壤中汞的含量均在50 mg·kg-1以上,达到重度汞污染水平。对该地区野生植物的采样分析发现,蔷薇科植物悬钩子不仅数量较多,单株植物生物量较大,表现出很强的耐汞毒性的能力,而且植株内可以很大程度地富集汞,在其植株中汞的含量可达20 mg·kg-1左右,属于汞富集植物,另外发现野蒿对汞也具有较强的富集能力,其植株中汞的含量可达10 mg·kg-1以上。该类型植物的发现将为植物的汞耐受以及汞富集机理研究提供新的素材,为汞污染土壤的植物修复技术提供新的植物类型,也为进一步开发汞污染土壤处理技术提供了一种可能。     

Furanocoumarins and their detoxification in a tri-trophic interaction

The parsnip webworm, Depressaria pastinacella, specializes on wild parsnip, Pastinaca sativa, and several species of Heracleum, hostplants rich in toxic furanocoumarins. Rates of furanocoumarin metabolism in this species are among the highest known for any insect. Within its native range in Europe, webworms are heavily parasitized by the polyembryonic parasitoid wasp Copidosoma sosares. In this study, we determined whether these parasitoids are exposed to furanocoumarins in host hemolymph, whether they can metabolize furanocoumarins, and whether parasitism influences the ability of webworms to detoxify furanocoumarins. Hemolymph of webworms fed artificial diet containing 0.3 % fresh weight xanthotoxin, a furanocoumarin prevalent in wild parsnip hosts, contained trace amounts of this toxin; as well, hemolymph of webworms consuming P. sativa flowers and fruits contained trace amounts of six of seven furanocoumarins present in the hostplant. Thus, parasitoids likely encounter furanocoumarins in host hemolymph. Assays of xanthotoxin metabolism in C. sosares failed to show any ability to metabolize this compound. Parasitized webworms, collected from populations of Heracleum sphondylium in the Netherlands in 2004, were on average 55 % larger by weight than unparasitized individuals. This weight is inclusive of host and parasitoid masses. Absolute rates of detoxification (nmoles min⁻¹) of five different furanocoumarins were indistinguishable between parasitized and unparasitized ultimate instars, suggesting that the intrinsic rates of metabolism are fixed. Thus, although parasitized larvae are larger, detoxification rates are not commensurate with size; rates in parasitized larvae expressed per gram of larval mass were 25 % lower than in unparasitized larvae.     

南岳衡山悬钩子属植物种质资源的调查

调查发现，南岳衡山悬钩子属(Rubus L.)植物有19种，其中山莓(R．corchorifolius)、粉枝莓(R．biflorus)、大红泡(R.eustephonos)、山挂牌条(R．flosculosus)、木莓(R．swinhoei)、灰白毛莓(R．tephrodes)为优势种，Rubus属植物主要分布在海拔200～800m的范围内，该属植物的果实和叶片中都含有丰富的营养成分，既可食用也可药用，开发前景十分广阔．     

Leaf choices of nest-building crab spiders (Misumena vatia)

Summary Crab spiders (Misumena vatia, Thomisidae) selected leaves of common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) over those of spreading dogbane (Apocynum androsaemifolium), pasture rose (Rosa carolina), and chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) as nest-sites in pairwise experiments among these four substrates. Nesting success was higher on milkweed than on the other three plant species. Early survival of the clutches was thus correlated with the preferences exhibited by their mothers. The major source of nest failure was parasitization by the ichneumonid wasp, Trychosis cyperia, which accounted for over 50 per cent of the nest losses.     

Fruit detection and discrimination by small fruit-eating bats (Phyllostomidae): echolocation call design and olfaction

We studied the role of echolocation and other sensory cues in two small frugivorous New World leaf-nosed bats (Phyllostomidae: Artibeus watsoni and Vampyressa pusilla) feeding on different types of fig fruit. To test which cues the bats need to find these fruit, we conducted behavioral experiments in a flight cage with ripe and similar-sized figs where we selectively excluded vision, olfaction, and echolocation cues from the bats. In another series of experiments, we tested the discrimination abilities of the bats and presented sets of fruits that differed in ripeness (ripe, unripe), size (small, large), and quality (intact(infested with caterpillars). We monitored the bats' foraging and echolocation behavior simultaneously. In flight, both bat species continuously emitted short (<2 ms), multi-harmonic, and steep frequency-modulated (FM) calls of high frequencies, large bandwidth, and very low amplitude. Foraging behavior of bats was composed of two distinct stages: search or orienting flight followed by approach behavior consisting of exploration flights, multiple approaches of a selected fruit, and final acquisition of ripe figs in flight or in a brief landing. Both bat species continuously emitted echolocation calls. Structure and pattern of signals changed predictably when the bats switched from search or orienting calls to approach calls. We did not record a terminal phase before final acquisition of a fruit, as it is typical for aerial insectivorous bats prior to capture. Both bat species selected ripe over unripe fruit and non-infested over infested fruit. Artibeus watsoni preferred larger over smaller fruit. We conclude from our experiments, that the bats used a combination of odor-guided detection together with echolocation for localization in order to find ripe fruit and to discriminate among them.     

Distribution of larval host plants of the fruit piercing moth,Othreis fullonia

Summary The adult fruit piercing moth,Othreis fullonia, a native of the indo-Malaysian region, causes severe damage to fruits grown throughout the tropical and subtropical belt from Africa through Asia and Australia to the Pacific Islands. Plants of the family Menispermaceae and the genusErythrina (Fabaceae) serve as larval hosts but the adult moths prefer Menispermaceae plants for oviposition. In Africa, Asia and Australia, the moth does not lay eggs onErythrina since members of the Menispermaceae are abundant. However in the insular Pacific region, where most islands have few or no species of Menispermaceae, the introduced fruit piercing moth utilizesErythrina as an alternate larval host, and either depletes, endangers or causes the possible extinction of Menispermaceae.     

Oligarchic Forests of Economic Plants in Ammonia: Utilization and Conservation of an Important Tropical Resource

Abstract: Tropical forests dominated by only one or two tree species occupy tens of millions of hectares in Ammonia In many cases, the dominant species produce fruits, seeds, or oils of economic importance. Oligarchic (Gr. oligo = few, archic = dominated or ruled by) forests of six economic species, i. e., Euterpe oleracea, Grias peruviana, Jessenia bataua, Mauritia flexuosa, Myrciaria dubia, and Orbignya phalerata, were studied in Brazil and Peru Natural populations of these species contain from 100 to 3,000 conspecific adult trees/ha and produce up to 11.1 metric tons of fruit/hd/yr. These plant populations are utilized and occasionally managed, by rural inhabitants in the region. Periodic fruit harvests, if properly controlled have only a minimal impact on forest structure and function, yet can generate substantial economic returns Market-oriented extraction of the fruits produced by oligarchic forests appears to represent a promising alternative for reconciling the development and conservation of Amazonian forests.     

The role of archaeophytes and neophytes in the Dutch coastal dunes

The position of alien plant species in the Dutch coastal dune vegetation is evaluated considering 12 archaeophytes and 20 neophytes (including one moss), all of widespread occurrence in the coastal area of the Netherlands. Almost all archaeophytes have become part of natural vegetation types. Open scrub communities, in particular Hippophae rhamnoides-Sambucus nigra scrub at the leeside of the outer dunes, and calciphilous moss-dominated pioneer vegetation are relatively rich in archaeophytes. Among neophyte vascular species a contrast is apparent between herbaceous and woody species. The majority of herbaceous neophytes are characteristic of man-disturbed habitats and are only infrequently observed in natural vegetation types. However, woody species (as well as the moss Campylopus introflexus) have entered into natural vegetation on a large scale and behave in an invasive way.     

Intratree vertical variation of fruit density and the nature of contest competition in frugivores

Recently, we demonstrated that the highest densities of fruit pulp are located in the uppermost zones of tree crowns. Since heterogeneous distributions of depletable food is theorized to foster contest competition, we tested three hypotheses involving rank differences among species of arboreal frugivores: (1) In the absence of competitors, species tend to feed in higher strata of tree crowns; (2) interspecific contest competition occurs through monopolization and usurpation of feeding sites in these higher strata; and (3) subordinate species decrease their feeding height and ingestion rate when dominants enter the food patch. To test these hypotheses, we observed chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), red-tailed monkeys (Cercopithecus ascanius), blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis), and gray-cheeked mangabeys (Lophocebus albigena) in Kibale National Park, Uganda. We found that: (1) all four primates fed preferentially in upper tree crowns when alone, (2) dominant species monopolized and aggressively usurped the upper crown when co-feeding with subordinates and the latter retreated below the middle of tree crowns, (3) in the presence of dominant species, subordinate species showed lower standardized feeding height and modified their food intake rates, while dominants were not affected by the subordinate species, (4) subordinates moved down at the arrival of and up at the departure of dominants, and (5) the presence of folivores in the tree did not affect the feeding height of a frugivore, even through folivores were socially dominant. Contrary to expectations, we found that red-tailed monkeys decreased their movements between successive fruits that they ate in the presence of blue monkeys compared to when they were feeding alone, perhaps to avoid disturbing dominants and attracting aggression or because they ingested more semi-ripe and green unripe fruits, i.e., more food of lower quality.     

Toxicity and attraction effects produced byMorinda citrifolia fruits on theDrosophila melanogaster complex of species

Summary The ripe fruit of the Indian mulberry,Morinda citrifolia, is the host plant forDrosophila sechellia but is highly toxic for three closely related species (D. melanogaster, D. simulans, D. mauritiana). A simple bioassay is described with which a clear dose response to the fruit was found for these species. Significant differences in reactivity to the ripe fruit were found among species. Tested strains ofD. simulans andD. mauritiana adults were more sensitive to the toxic properties of the fruit thanD. melanogaster. A marked intraspecific variability was shown inD. melanogaster. Reciprocal interspecific hybridizations betweenD. sechellia andD. mauritiana suggested an autosomal dominant control of resistance. MoreoverD. melanogaster intraspecific crossings suggested the influence of an additional X-linked factor. Responses of flies toMorinda fruit in different states were tested in a T olfactometer. The less resistant strains ofDrosophila generally showed less preference for the ripe fruit.     

Yar tsa Gumba (Cordyceps sinensis): A call for its sustainable exploitation

Yar tsa Gumba, the local name for Cordyceps sinensis, is an entomophilus fungus in the order Hypocreales and family Scolecosporaceae, found primarily in alpine and subalpine regions, from 3200 to 4000 m asl. The fungus is parasitic on caterpillars, primarily those in the genus Hepialus. Studies on Cordyceps sinensis indicate that the fungus may improve liver function, reduce cholesterol, adjust protein metabolism, inhibit lung carcinoma and treat aging disorders. In the last five years, since it was found in parts of Garhwal and Kumaun Himalaya, massive exploitation has occurred, leading to a drastic decrease in wild populations. This paper presents results of an exploration carried out on the fungus at several important sites, the mode of trafficking and suggested policy initiative for its sustainable exploitation.     

Do tephritid-induced fruit volatiles attract males of the fruit flies parasitoid Psyttalia concolor (Szépligeti) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)?

The braconid wasp Psyttalia concolor (Szépligeti) is an endoparasitoid of several tephritids of economic importance. Even if it has been reported that females of this species rely extensively on tephritid-induced fruit volatiles (TIFVs) during host location, no information is available on the behavioural role of TIFVs on males. Because P. concolor females mate only once, we hypothesized that the perception of TIFVs could be crucial for males, guiding them towards infested fruits on which they could find newly emerged females, thus raising the males’ chances to locate receptive females during their lifespan. On this basis, here we evaluate the attractiveness of synthetic TIFVs from two different trophic interactions, Ceratitis capitata–Malus domestica and Ceratitis capitata–Prunus persica towards P. concolor virgin males. The results showed that both fruit-mimicking blends, three synthetic apple-borne (1-butyl butyrate, 1-butyl hexanoate and 1-hexyl (E)-2-methylbutenoate) and four synthetic peach-borne (ethyl octanoate, nonanoic acid, decanoic acid and dodecanoic acid) compounds were found to attract males. Among these molecules, 1-butyl butyrate, 1-butyl hexanoate and decanoic acid also prolonged the time the males spent performing searching activities on the TIPV-treated surface. Because males probably use these volatiles mainly for sexual purposes, we believe that these chemicals could be classified as sexual kairomones.