The supervisor POS–LMX–subordinate POS chain: Moderation by reciprocation wariness and supervisor's organizational embodiment

We present three studies providing an increased understanding of the interdependence between perceived organizational support (POS) and leader–member exchange (LMX). Using employees from a social service agency and new hires from a variety of organizations, we report evidence for a relational chain leading from supervisors' perceptions of support by the organization (supervisor POS) to the formation of high‐quality LMX relationships with their subordinates (first link), who interpret high‐quality LMX as support from the organization (subordinate POS, second link) and, ultimately, repay the organization with increased dedication and effort (examined here in terms of reduced withdrawal behavior). The relationship between supervisor POS and LMX with subordinates was strongly moderated by supervisor fear of exploitation in exchange relationships (reciprocation wariness), holding only for supervisors with low reciprocation wariness. Consistent with the view that employees perceive the organization as partly responsible for treatment received from supervisors, LMX was found to be more strongly related to POS when employees highly identified their supervisors with the organization (supervisor's organizational embodiment), and this interaction extended to reduced withdrawal behavior. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Navigating uneven terrain: The roles of political skill and LMX differentiation in prediction of work relationship quality and work outcomes

Drawing from social/political influence, leader–member exchange (LMX), and social comparison theories, the present two‐study investigation examines three levels of LMX differentiation (i.e., individual‐level, meso‐level, and group‐level LMX differentiation) and further tests a model of the joint effects of political skill and LMX differentiation on LMX, relative LMX, and employee work outcomes. In Study 1, we used data from 231 employees and found support for the interactive effect of political skill and individual perceptions of LMX differentiation on LMX quality. We also found partial support for the moderating role of individual‐level LMX differentiation on the indirect effects of political skill on self‐rated task performance and job satisfaction via LMX. In Study 2, we used data from 185 supervisor–subordinate dyads and examined both meso‐level and group‐level LMX differentiation via a multilevel moderated mediation model. Results supported the moderating role of group‐level LMX differentiation and group mean LMX on the indirect effects of political skill on supervisor‐rated task performance and contextual performance/citizenship behavior as well as job satisfaction via relative LMX. Overall, the results suggest that politically skilled employees reap the benefits of LMX differentiation, as they enjoy higher absolute LMX and relative (i.e., to their peers) LMX quality. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Organizational behavior implications of the congruence between preferred polychronicity and experienced work‐unit polychronicity

This research hypothesizes that greater congruence between preferred polychronicity (the extent to which an individual prefers to be involved with several tasks simultaneously) and experienced work‐unit polychronicity (the polychronic behaviors and preferences of the supervisor and co‐workers) will be associated with higher levels of (1) three components of organizational commitment (willingness to exert effort, desire to remain a member of the organization, and belief in and acceptance of organizational goals), (2) the individual's perceived performance evaluation by the supervisor and co‐workers, and (3) the individual's perceived fairness of the performance evaluation. Based on a sample of employed business school graduates, the results indicate that polychronic congruence is significantly related to these variables in the predicted direction. The use of polynomial regression analysis reveals additional characteristics of the relationships that would not have been available from the analysis of squared‐difference scores. The findings support the position that polychronicity and other temporal variables are important factors in organizational research. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Abusive according to whom? Manager and subordinate perceptions of abusive supervision and supervisors' performance

Recognizing that supervisor–subordinate dyads exist within a broader organizational hierarchy, we examine how the individual's role within the organizational hierarchy influences perceptions of abusive supervision. Specifically, we examine how supervisors' abusive behaviors are perceived by abusive supervisors' managers as well as abusive supervisors' subordinates. Drawing on role theory, we propose that these perceptions will differ. Further, we suggest that these differences will be reflected in different relationships between manager-rated abusive supervision and subordinate-rated abusive supervision and managers' evaluations of supervisor performance. Results from manager–supervisor–subordinate triads indicate differences between managers' and subordinates' view of abusive supervision. Further, managers' perceptions of abuse were related to supervisors' in-role performance, whereas subordinates' perceptions of abuse were related to workgroup performance. In Study 2, we replicate these findings and expand our investigation to an examination of supervisors' contextual performance. Additionally, we examine another contextual characteristic—aggressive climate—and demonstrate it influences how abusive supervision relates to managerial evaluations of supervisor performance. Future research and managerial implications are discussed.     

Got milk? Workplace factors related to breastfeeding among working mothers

The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that women breastfeed because of improved health outcomes for mothers and children. Because maternal employment during the first year of the child's life has been identified as a reason for breastfeeding cessation, we develop and test a role‐theory‐based framework to explain women's continuation of breastfeeding after return to work (Study 1) and report results of an exploratory study linking breastfeeding at work with job attitudes and well‐being (Study 2). Applying survival analysis to a longitudinal dataset gathered by the Centers for Disease Control (Study 1), we identify pregnant women's perceived employer support for breastfeeding as a predictor of women's breastfeeding goal intentions. Supervisors' negative workplace remarks about breastfeeding related to an eightfold increase of women's likelihood to discontinue exclusive breastfeeding and perceived support for breastfeeding after return to work predicted exclusive breastfeeding continuation. Results of Study 2 suggest that women who return to work and continue breastfeeding experience more family‐to‐work conflict and overload than women who do not reconcile work and breastfeeding. Further, results of Study 2 provide preliminary evidence suggesting that perceptions of supervisor and coworker support for breastfeeding relate positively to general perceptions of organizational support and negatively to depressive symptoms. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Active learning climate and employee errors: The moderating effects of personality traits

This study developed and tested a cross‐level model of the relationship between two components of active learning climate—enactive exploration and guided learning—and employee errors, and the moderating roles of the individual's traits of openness to experience and conscientiousness. The study examined the medical errors made by 142 resident physicians in 22 hospital departments. Results demonstrated significant interactions between climate and traits: when an individual had a low level of the trait of openness to experience, there was a curvilinear relationship between enactive exploration climate and number of errors. With a high level of openness to experience, the enactive exploration climate was positively associated with the number of errors up to a certain point. In addition, when an individual had a low level of conscientiousness, there was a negative association between guided learning climate and number of errors; with a high level of conscientiousness, there was a positive association between guided learning climate and number of errors. Thus, individual performance was better when the climate complemented the individual's lack of a trait. When the level of the individual's trait was high, the climate intensified the already pronounced trait up to an extent that impaired the individual's performance. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Supervisor expediency to employee expediency: The moderating role of leader–member exchange and the mediating role of employee unethical tolerance

We utilize social learning theory to test the role‐modeling effect of supervisor expediency (i.e., a supervisor's use of unethical practices to expedite work for self‐serving purposes). In particular, we examine the relationship between supervisor expediency and employee expediency, as moderated by leader–member exchange (LMX) and mediated by employee unethical tolerance. We predict that employees are more likely to model their supervisors' expedient behaviors when their relationship is characterized by high‐LMX (a high‐quality exchange relationship that is rich in socioemotional support). Furthermore, we argue that supervisor expediency, especially when LMX is high, influences employees' attitudes of unethical tolerance, which then affects employees' expedient behaviors. Across 2 multisource field studies and a third time‐lagged field study, we found general support for our theoretical predictions. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Effects of coworker information on perceptions and ratings of performance

This study examined the effects of performance information from the ratee's coworker both on rater's perceptions of the information and ratings of the ratee's performance. As part of a managerial role‐play exercise, subjects were required to rate an employee's performance. Audiotaped interactions of the ratee and customers were manipulated to reflect either good or poor performance. In addition, the ratee's coworker provided performance information which varied on (a) who was the initiator of the report and (b) the favorability of the information. Results revealed that while performance information from the ratee's coworker did not significantly affect ratings of performance when it was consistent with the rater's direct observations, ratings were affected when the information from a coworker was inconsistent with the rater's direct observations even though the information from a coworker was perceived as less accurate and of less use. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Time‐based differences in the effects of positive and negative affectivity on perceived supervisor support and organizational commitment among newcomers

Building on the broaden‐and‐build theory and research on the negativity bias, this study examines how trait affectivity, as a stable predisposition predicting the pattern of emotional responding, shapes newcomers' perceptions of supervisor support and experience of organizational commitment. Using latent growth modeling and data collected at four points in time from newcomers (N = 158), we found the initial level of perceived supervisor support to mediate a negative relationship between negative affectivity and the level of commitment. Moreover, although newcomers experienced a general decrease in perceived supervisor support and a related decrease in commitment, those with high positive affectivity experienced a weaker decrease in perceived supervisor support, which led to a weaker decrease in commitment. Incidentally, positive affectivity was also positively related to the initial level of commitment. Two post hoc studies indicated that positive and negative affectivity exerted their effects controlling for state affect and replicated the relationship between change in perceived support and commitment. We discuss how these findings inform our understanding of trait affectivity's influence on newcomers' work attitudes.     

Leader–member exchange,organizational identification,and knowledge hiding: The moderating role of relative leader–member exchange

In this article, we sought to identify a new interpersonal antecedent of knowledge hiding, namely, leader–member exchange (LMX). Drawing on the group engagement model (an extension of social identity theory within the group/organization context), we built a theoretical model linking LMX and knowledge hiding. This model focuses on the mediating role of organizational identification and the moderating role of relative LMX in influencing the mediation. Using two time‐lagged studies (Study 1: n = 317; Study 2: n = 248) conducted in China, we examined our research model. Study 1 provided support for the proposed hypotheses for evasive hiding and playing dumb but not for rationalized hiding. Study 2 replicated and extended our findings. Results revealed that (a) LMX was negatively related to evasive hiding and playing dumb but not to rationalized hiding; (b) organizational identification mediated the influence of LMX on evasive hiding and playing dumb but not on rationalized hiding; and (c) relative LMX not only moderated the relationship between LMX and organizational identification but also reinforced the indirect effect of LMX on evasive hiding and playing dumb but not on rationalized hiding (via organizational identification). The implications, limitations, and future research directions are also discussed.     

Person–organization and person–supervisor fits: Employee commitments in a Chinese context

The present study simultaneously examined people's perceptions of person–organization (PO) and person–supervisor (PS) fit and related these perceptions to employees' commitments. Three‐hundred‐and‐sixty employee–supervisor dyads from Taiwanese organizations reported about their PO fit and PS fit perceptions. In addition, supervisors reported about their perceptions of fit and guanxi with each of their employees. Results indicated that PO and PS fit perceptions both had an independent and additive relationship with organizational commitment. The link between employee PS fit perceptions and organizational commitment was mediated by commitment to the supervisor. Both employee and supervisor fit perceptions contributed to commitment to the supervisor through their influence on the quality of the leader‐member exchange (LMX). Guanxi could not explain additional variance in LMX and supervisor commitment. Implications for theory and practices regarding person–environment fit, commitment, and LMX are discussed. The study findings offered suggestions for a new Theory of Multiple Fits. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Exploring work unit context and leader–member exchange: a multi‐level perspective

Leader–member exchange relationships have rarely been explored within the context of the work unit. Employing a sample of 285 employees of a southeastern county library system, the work unit contextual factors of work group size, work group cohesiveness, organizational climate, and leader power were examined for their relationship with LMX from the subordinate's perspective, using a within and between analysis (WABA) approach. All of the contextual variables except size were significantly related to LMX. The WABA and r_WG analyses revealed that effects occurred at both within‐ and between‐group levels, indicating individual difference effects. Thus, practitioners should emphasize enhancements to group and organizational processes as well as contributions toward relationship building in LMX dyads. Future research should expand the network of contextual variables that may have potential relevance with LMX, since this study demonstrated that the work context in which the dyad resides contributes in part to the LMX phenomenon. Additional study of the work unit size and LMX relationship is also warranted, as the current research failed to replicate previous research with a predicted negative relationship. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Perceived mastery climate,felt trust,and knowledge sharing

Interpersonal trust is associated with a range of adaptive outcomes, including knowledge sharing. However, to date, our knowledge of antecedents and consequences of employees feeling trusted by supervisors in organizations remains limited. On the basis of a multisource, multiwave field study among 956 employees from 5 Norwegian organizations, we examined the predictive roles of perceived mastery climate and employee felt trust for employees' knowledge sharing. Drawing on the achievement goal theory, we develop and test a model to demonstrate that when employees perceive a mastery climate, they are more likely to feel trusted by their supervisors at both the individual and group levels. Moreover, the relationship between employees' perceptions of a mastery climate and supervisor‐rated knowledge sharing is mediated by perceptions of being trusted by the supervisor. Theoretical contributions and practical implications of our findings are discussed.     

Synergy or substitution? The interactive effects of insiders' fairness and support and organizational socialization tactics on newcomer role clarity and social integration

Drawing on fairness heuristics theory (Lind, 2001) and cue consistency theory (Maheswaran & Chaiken, 1991; Slovic, 1966), we test a moderated mediation model that examines whether the institutionalization of organizational socialization tactics enhances or constrains the beneficial effects of supervisory and coworker‐referenced justice and support on newcomer role clarity and social integration. The findings of a three‐wave study of 219 French newcomers show that although institutionalized tactics strengthen the positive indirect effects of supervisory interpersonal and informational justice on role clarity, via perceived supervisor support, it also acts as a substitute that weakens the positive indirect effect of coworker‐referenced interpersonal justice on social integration, via perceived coworker support. Implications of the findings for socialization research and practice are discussed.     

Predicting employee aggression against coworkers,subordinates and supervisors: the roles of person behaviors and perceived workplace factors

Predictors of employee aggression against coworkers, subordinates, and supervisors were studied in a sample of 136 men employed full‐time. Person behaviors (history of aggression, amount of alcohol consumed) predicted aggression against a coworker. In contrast, aggression against a supervisor was predicted by two perceived workplace factors (procedural justice, workplace surveillance). However, neither person behaviors nor perceived workplace factors predicted aggression against a subordinate. In addition, person behaviors and perceived workplace factors interacted to predict aggression. First, procedural justice interacted with amount of alcohol consumed in predicting both aggression against a coworker and aggression against a subordinate. Secondly, both job security and procedural justice interacted with history of aggression in predicting aggression against a subordinate. Finally, job security and amount of alcohol consumed interacted to predict aggression against a subordinate. Results suggest that both the understanding and prediction of employee aggression will be enhanced by taking into account the target of employee aggression, and by including both perceived workplace factors and person behaviors as predictor variables. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Leader–member social exchange (LMSX): development and validation of a scale

In the last 10 years, research devoted to the construct of leader–member exchange (LMX) has increasingly relied on the tenets of social exchange as a theoretical foundation to propose and test relationships between supervisor‐subordinate dyads and variables of significant consequence. Despite the theory underpinning such relationships, researchers continue to measure LMX with scales developed to assess vertical dyad linkage (VDL), not social exchange. To address this concern, we investigated the content validity of LMX7 (the most widely cited measure of LMX) and LMX‐MDM (a popular multidimensional measure of LMX). Findings from content validity assessments by 25 LMX experts revealed LMX7 and LMX‐MDM items are not representative of the construct of social exchange. As such, we undertook a series of studies to develop a new scale we label, leader–member social exchange (LMSX). Results indicate LMSX is able to assess different, as well as the same, components of the supervisor–subordinate relationship as previous scales while being more theoretically consistent with the notion of social exchange. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Conflict,justice, and inequality: Why perceptions of leader–member exchange differentiation hurt performance in teams

To better understand why leader–member exchange (LMX) differentiation in teams may be detrimental to individual and team performance, we propose that team members' perception of LMX differentiation (PLMXD) is more important than statistical measures of LMX differentiation. Specifically, we hypothesize a multilevel model in which relationship conflict and procedural justice (climate) mediate the relationships of individual and collective PLMXDs with individual and team performance, respectively. Using a sample of 235 individuals in 53 teams, we found that individual PLMXD was negatively related to individual performance through relationship conflict perceptions, controlling for LMX. At the team level, collective PLMXD was negatively related to team performance through procedural justice climate and relationship conflict, controlling for a statistical measure of LMXD. Theoretical implications and directions for future research are explored.     

Leader–member exchange: Moderating the health and safety outcomes of job insecurity

IntroductionJob insecurity has been repeatedly linked with poor employee health and safety outcomes. Although research on high quality leader–member exchange (LMX) has demonstrated many beneficial effects, no research to date has examined the extent to which positive LMX might attenuate those adverse health and safety-related consequences of job insecurity. The current study extends research in this area by specifically examining the buffering impact of LMX on the relationship between job insecurity and safety knowledge, reported accidents, and physical health conditions. Furthermore, the study also examines whether positive LMX mitigates the typically seen negative impact of job insecurity on supervisor satisfaction.MethodsThe hypotheses were tested using survey data collected from 212 employees of a mine located in southwestern United States.ResultsAs predicted, job insecurity was related to lower levels of supervisor satisfaction, more health ailments, and more workplace accidents, and was marginally related to lower levels of safety knowledge. Results indicated that LMX significantly attenuated these observed relationships.ConclusionsThe quality of the dyadic relationship between supervisor and subordinate has a significant impact on the extent to which job insecurity is associated with adverse health and safety outcomes.Practical applicationsPractical implications for supervisor behavior and developing high quality LMX are discussed in light of today's pervasive job insecurity.     

A new look at the psychological contract during organizational socialization: The role of newcomers' obligations at entry

Previous studies have demonstrated that the psychological contract is largely shaped during socialization. This study adopts a complementary perspective and analyzes how the psychological contract at the start of employment shapes the subsequent socialization process. Drawing upon social exchange theory, we propose that newcomers with a higher sense of their personal obligations at entry will perceive orientation training as more useful and develop better relationships with their supervisors and peers, which in turn will facilitate their work adjustment. Results of a longitudinal survey on a sample of 144 recruits from a European Army show that newcomers with a higher initial sense of their employee obligations toward their employer report higher perceived training utility, higher leader–member exchange (LMX) with their instructors, and higher team–member exchange (TMX) with their platoon peers. Moreover, perceived training utility and LMX predict the fulfillment of employers' obligations; and training utility predicts the level of newcomers' employee obligations. Finally, training utility, LMX, and TMX predict some of three indicators of newcomers' adjustment, namely, role clarity (training utility and LMX), group integration (TMX), and organizational values understanding (training utility). These results highlight how newcomers' obligations at the start of employment contribute to the social exchange dynamic underlying organizational socialization. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of passive leadership on workplace incivility

In this article, we examine the effects of passive leadership on workplace incivility across two studies. Study 1 examines passive leadership–incivility relationships in a sample of employee–supervisor dyads, and Study 2 examines these relationships in a sample of employee–coworker dyads. Results from these studies suggest that passive leadership has a significant direct effect on behavioral incivility and an indirect effect through experienced incivility. Moreover, our results suggest that the relationship between experienced incivility and behavioral incivility is conditional on the level of passive leadership, such that the effect of experienced incivility on behavioral incivility is stronger at higher levels of passive leadership. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.