Development of biodiversity in field margins recently taken out of production and adjacent ditch banks in arable areas

Taking field margins out of intensive cultivation is a common form of agri-environmental scheme and on-farm nature management. Typically, no nutrients or pesticides are applied in these margins, which may be sown either with a crop or with grasses and native flowering plants. In some cases the margins are mown, while in others they are left alone. Newly established grass margins are less species-rich than field boundaries or road verges with a long history, justifying the expectation that field margins, if properly managed and given time and appropriate seed sources, could develop into relatively species-rich vegetation. We studied the biodiversity of both margins taken out of production and adjacent ditch banks in the years following initial establishment of the margins. To this end we combined the data of three different projects in order to increase the sensitivity of the statistical analyses. The results showed that the plant species richness of the field margins increased in the years following establishment over a period of four years. In addition, shifts in species composition indicated a decrease in soil nitrate concentrations. The species richness of both butterflies and dragonflies may increase. The most striking result was the marked increase in the plant species richness of the adjacent ditch banks in the five years following creation of the margins. Here, too, changes in species composition indicated a decrease in soil nitrate. In the years following establishment of the field margins there was no increase in the cover of agriculturally harmful weeds in these margins. However, the number of harmful nematodes increased. Our results show the short term effect of establishing field margins. Long term effects are still in need for further research.     

Comparison of riparian plant communities under four land management systems in southwestern Wisconsin

Riparian plant community composition is influenced by moisture, erosion, original native plant communities, and current and past land use. This study compared riparian plant communities under four types of management: woody buffer strip, grassy buffer strip, rotational grazing, and continuous grazing. Study sites were located along spring-fed streams in the unglaciated region of southwestern Wisconsin, USA. At each site, plant community surveys were conducted using a point transect method. Among the treatments, woody buffer strips, rotationally grazed and continuously grazed riparian areas had greater plant species richness than grassy buffer strips, and woody buffer strips had the greatest native plant species richness. Reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea L.) was prevalent in grassy buffer strips (44% of all observations), common in woody buffer strips (15%), and rare in sites that were rotationally or continuously grazed (3 and 5%, respectively). Pasture sites had greater proportions of native grasses and grass relatives and moderate levels of overall native species richness. Considered a water quality best management practice, well-managed rotational grazing may be a reasonable alternative to buffer strips which can contribute to protection and enhancement of native vegetation biodiversity.     

Impact of seed mixture and mowing on food abundance for farmland birds in set-asides

We studied the impact of seed mixtures (grass-clover, less competitive grass vs. meadow plant mixture) and mowing (annual mowing vs. no mowing) on the abundance of seed and insect food for farmland birds in set-aside in a long-term field experiment. In general, seed food was less affected by the treatments than insect food. The impact of seed mixture on the abundance of seed food was dependent on the study year: the highest level recorded in the first year, followed by a substantial decline in the following years. Mowing increased the biomass of seed food. The impact of treatments on insect food abundance differed between the total amount of insect food, and had significant interactions with year. Different insect groups dominated in each year as well as their response to the treatments. For the total amount, the meadow plant seed mixture appeared to be the most beneficial and a slight positive impact of mowing appeared in the last two years of the experiment. The results suggest that the value of set-asides in providing food differs according to food components and declines with increasing age of the set-aside.     

Gaps in the capacity of modern forage crops to adapt to the changing climate in northern Europe

The within-species diversity in response to weather and the gaps in the response diversity in the modern set of forage crop cultivars were determined using an approach that assessed the adaptive capacity under global climate change. The annual dry matter (DM) yields were recorded in multi-location MTT (Maa- ja elintarviketalouden tutkimuskeskus) Agrifood Research Official Variety Trials in Finland for modern forage crop cultivars from 2000 to 2012, as a response to agroclimatic variables critical to yield based on the year-round weather data. The effect and interaction of cultivars and agroclimatic variables were analysed using mixed model. The relatively low adaptive capacity of timothy (Phleum pratense L.) and meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis Huds.) indicates that diversification of the breeding material is warranted, particularly for resistance to high temperatures during primary growth and to high temperature sum 7 days after the first cut. All red clover cultivars (Trifolium pratense L.) suffered from both low and high accumulation of warm winter temperatures. Except for the red clover cultivars, cold stress during winter and lack of warm winter temperatures consistently reduced the yields of all species and cultivars. All tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) cultivars suffered from low precipitation during the fall hardening period. Although the set of festulolium (Festulolium pabulare) cultivars was also sensitive to low precipitation during the fall, festulolium was a good example of enhanced capacity to adapt to climate change with high response diversity because the cultivar germplasm base was diversified. Foreign origin in a cultivar pool was apparently not sufficient or necessary to ensure added value for a diversity of responses to climate change. Similar analyses to those used in this study, applied as practical tools for breeders, farmers and public actors, are important to secure the adaptive capacity of crops worldwide under global climate change.     

Winter diet of reed bunting Emberiza schoeniclus in fallow and stubble fields

An analysis of droppings collected in winter on unused fields in SW Poland (fallow, stubble of root crop, vegetable and cereal) showed that the base of the reed bunting Emberiza schoeniclus diet were seeds of annual weed species: Chenopodium album (74.06% of all recorded seed species), Amaranthus retroflexus (16.05%), Setaria viridis (9.50%), Stellaria media (0.21%), Fumaria officinalis (0.01%). The share of dominant weed species in the diet of reed bunting wintering on particular types of fields varied markedly. In the droppings from fallows and cereal stubbles, C. album clearly dominated (respectively, 88.60 and 66.12%). The highest proportion of A. retroflexus and S. viridis was detected in the diet of birds staying on root crop stubbles (respectively, 45.56 and 23.90%). The most diverse food composition was found in the case of birds feeding on root crops and the least diverse on fallows.     

Carbon exchange by establishing biofuel crops in Central Illinois

Perennial grass biofuels may contribute to long-term carbon sequestration in soils, thereby providing a broad range of environmental benefits. To quantify those benefits, the carbon balance was investigated over three perennial grass biofuel crops - miscanthus (Miscanthus × giganteus), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) and a mixture of native prairie plants - and a row crop control (maize-maize-soy) in Central Illinois, USA, during the establishment phase of the perennial grasses (2008-2011). The eddy covariance technique was used to calculate fluxes of carbon dioxide and energy balance components, such as latent and sensible heat fluxes. Whereas maize attained the highest maximal carbon uptake rates, the perennial grasses had significantly extended growing seasons, such that their total carbon uptake rivaled that of corn in the second growing season and greatly exceeded that of soy in the third growing season. To account for the removal of carbon through harvest, net ecosystem exchange of carbon (NEE) was combined with estimates of yields, resulting in the net ecosystem carbon balance (NECB). After 2.5 years, NECB for the maize/soybean plot was positive (a source of carbon), while the grasses were a sink of carbon. Continuous measurements over the next years are required in order to confirm whether miscanthus, switchgrass and prairie can sustain a long-term sink of carbon if managed for biofuels, i.e., if harvested annually.     

Sown species richness and realized diversity can influence functioning of plant communities differently

Biodiversity–ecosystem functioning experiments (BEF) typically manipulate sown species richness and composition of experimental communities to study ecosystem functioning as a response to changes in diversity. If sown species richness is taken as a measure of diversity and aboveground biomass production as a measure of community functioning, then this relationship is usually found to be positive. The sown species richness can be considered the equivalent of a local species pool in natural communities. However, in addition to species richness, realized diversity is also an important community diversity component. Realized diversity is affected by environmental filtering and biotic interactions operating within a community. As both sown species richness and the realized diversity in BEF studies (as well as local species pool vs observed realized richness in natural communities) can differ markedly, so can their effects on the community functioning. We tested this assumption using two data sets: data from a short-term pot experiment and data from the long-term Jena biodiversity plot experiment. We considered three possible predictors of community functioning (aboveground biomass production): sown species richness, realized diversity (defined as inverse of Simpson dominance index), and survivor species richness. Sown species richness affected biomass production positively in all cases. Realized diversity as well as survivor species richness had positive effects on biomass in approximately half of cases. When realized diversity or survivor species richness was tested together with sown species richness, their partial effects were none or negative. Our results suggest that we can expect positive diversity–productivity relationship when the local species pool size is the decisive factor determining realized observed diversity; in other cases, the shape of the diversity–functioning relationship may be quite opposite.     

高羊茅和结缕草对地下渗滤系统中氮磷的去除研究

研究了高羊茅和结缕草覆盖的地下渗滤系统处理生活污水过程两种草坪草对氮、磷的去除作用。研究结果表明:高羊茅含有的总氮浓度在46.8～52.7 g/kg变化,且显著高于结缕草的总氮浓度;高羊茅含有的总磷浓度在4.64～5.89 g/kg之间变化,两种草坪草之间没有显著差异;高羊茅的日平均氮带出量在不同的月份分别为0.237,0.180,0.118 g/(m2.d),显著高于结缕草的日平均氮带出量;高羊茅对生活污水中的氮去除率在2011年9月、10月及11月分别为21.4%,、13.1%和11.8%;高羊茅的日平均磷带出量在不同的月份分别为23.4,15.1,13.8 mg/(m2.d),显著高于结缕草的日平均磷带出量;高羊茅对生活污水中的磷去除率在2011年9月、10月及11月分别为30.2%、24.4%和22.4%。     

Development of plant communities on set-aside in England

A survey of land taken out of production from the early 1990s onwards under the European Union's set-aside policy in England was carried out in 2008, to record plant communities in set-aside of different ages, effects of distance from the field edge, sowing and soil type. Communities were classified using the Countryside Vegetation System (CVS), Ellenberg indicators and Grime CSR strategy. Species richness declined with distance from the field boundary. Annuals declined with age of set-aside. In older set-aside, perennials dominated, 40-50% of species were grasses, and grasses covered over 70% of the area. Sown areas had a higher proportion of grass species and a lower proportion of wind-dispersed species. Perennial forbs increased over time in naturally regenerated swards but decreased on sown swards. Annuals and grasses were more prevalent on light soils, with more bare ground on heavy soils. Most transects fell into CVS aggregate classes ‘tall grassland/herb’ and ‘fertile grassland’. Ellenberg fertility values decreased initially but then stabilised. Competitor scores increased, and ruderal scores declined, with age. In general, the rate of change declined with age. Although few sites had plant communities of significant conservation interest, the value of set-aside is likely to be primarily to maintain botanical diversity in intensively farmed areas, as well as providing food and habitat for fauna.     

Weed potential of Mikania micrantha H.B.K., and its control in fallows after shifting agriculture (Jhum) in North-East India

Mikania micrantha H.B.K. is an exotic, perennial weed which colonizes communities developing after slash and burn agriculture (Jhum) at lower elevations of north-east India. The population dynamics and reproductive potential of M. micrantha was studied. Reproduction through ramets arising from rosettes exceeded that from seeds. The ramet population growth was highest during the monsoon season as a consequence of high population birth and large-scale mortality. Net population increased with increasing age of the fallow for 3 years, and declined drastically in 6- and 12-year-old fallows. Biomass was allocated mainly to the ramet root system in younger fallows and to the rosette root system in older fallows. Seed reproduction potential peaked in a 3-year-old fallow and declined rapidly thereafter. The significance of the results in terms of natural elimination of the species through succession, and the increased weed potential leading to arrested succession under short jhum cycles is discussed.     

Conspecific flowers of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sinapis arvensis</Emphasis> are stronger competitors for pollinators than those of the invasive weed <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bunias orientalis</Emphasis>

Biological invasions can affect the structure and function of ecosystems and threaten native plant species. Since most weeds rely on mutualistic relationships in their new environment, they may act as new competitors for pollinators. Pollinator competition is likely to be density dependent, but it is often difficult to disentangle competition caused by flower quality from effects caused by flower quantity. In order to test the effects of the presence and number of flowers of the invasive weed Bunias orientalis on the insect visitation rates in a native species (Sinapis arvensis), we performed two replacement experiments using plants with standardised flower numbers. The visitation rates in S. arvensis were significantly higher than in B. orientalis and the number of insect visits dropped significantly with increasing density of S. arvensis flowers. These results suggest that intraspecific competition among flowers of S. arvensis is stronger than the competitive effect of alien flowers. As flowers of B. orientalis do not seem to distract visitors from S. arvensis, it is unlikely that pollinator competition between these two plant species plays a crucial role. However, it cannot be excluded that mass blossom stands of B. orientalis may distract flower visitors from native species.     

阿魏酸和香豆素对铜绿微囊藻的化感作用

通过对铜绿微囊藻(Microcystis aeruginosa)的藻液D680、叶绿素a、电导率(EC)值以及超氧阴离子自由基O.2-含量的测定,研究了不同浓度的阿魏酸和香豆素对铜绿微囊藻的生长抑制作用及其机制.结果表明,阿魏酸和香豆素对铜绿微囊藻的生长均产生"低促高抑"作用,浓度高于100 mg.L-1的阿魏酸和香豆素对铜绿微囊藻表现出明显的抑制作用,200 mg.L-1的阿魏酸和香豆素第6 d的平均抑藻率分别为80.3%和58.0%.在高浓度阿魏酸和香豆素抑制作用下,铜绿微囊藻的叶绿素a含量迅速降低、EC值和O.2-含量明显增大,说明化感物质可能通过破坏细胞膜、增加O.2-含量、降低叶绿素a含量等作用抑制藻细胞的生长.此外,种子发芽实验结果表明,阿魏酸较香豆素毒性小.     

Large pollen loads of a South African asclepiad do not interfere with the foraging behaviour or efficiency of pollinating honey bees

The pollen of asclepiads (Asclepiadoideae, Apocynaceae) and most orchids (Orchidaceae) are packaged as large aggregations known as pollinaria that are removed as entire units by pollinators. In some instances, individual pollinators may accumulate large loads of these pollinaria. We found that the primary pollinator of Cynanchum ellipticum (Apocynaceae—Asclepiadoideae), the honey bee Apis mellifera, accumulate very large agglomerations of pollinaria on their mouthparts when foraging on this species. We tested whether large pollinarium loads negatively affected the foraging behaviour and foraging efficiency of honey bees by slowing foraging speeds or causing honey bees to visit fewer flowers, and found no evidence to suggest that large pollinarium loads altered foraging behaviour. C. ellipticum displayed consistently high levels of pollination success and pollen transfer efficiency (PTE). This may be a consequence of efficiently loading large numbers of pollinaria onto pollinators even when primary points of attachment on pollinators are already occupied and doing so in a manner that does not impact the foraging behaviour of pollinating insects.     

Atrazine and simazine in runoff from conventional and no-till corn watersheds

A study was initiated to compare the surface runoff of atrazine and simazine from adjacent conventional tillage (CT) and no-tillage (NT) corn watersheds that were otherwise identical. Runoff was collected in H-type flumes and Coshocton wheels. Atrazine [2-chloro-4-(ethylamino)-6-(isopropylamino) -s-triazine] and simazine [2-chloro-4,6-bis(ethylamino)-s-triazine] were applied at 2.2 kg a.i. ha⁻¹ to both watersheds annually from 1979 to 1982.There was less runoff of water, atrazine and simazine from the NT watershed compared to the CT watershed each year that a major runoff event occurred during the growing season. Between 1979 and 1982, total volume of runoff was 27% less from the NT compared to the CT watershed. Most of the herbicide loss in surface runoff occurred during the first runoff event after application. The concentration of simazine in runoff was much less than that of atrazine. The greatest runoff of herbicides occurred in 1979 when 1.6 and 1.1% of the atrazine applied moved from the CT and NT watershed, respectively, and 0.52 and 0.36% of the simazine applied moved from the CT and NT watershed, respectively.     

Effect of copper tolerant Elsholtzia splendens on bacterial community associated with Commelina communis on a copper mine spoil

Facilitation, or positive plant–plant interaction, has received increasing concern from ecologists over the last two decades. Facilitation may occur through direct mitigation of severe environments or indirect mediation by a third participant from the same or different trophic levels. The copper(Cu) tolerant species Elsholtzia splendens facilitates the establishment and growth of co-occurring Commelina communis through indirect enrichment of microbial activity. However, whether and how E. splendens impacts the microbial community that is associated with C. communis is less known. We characterized the soil bacterial community in the rhizosphere of C. communis in the absence and presence of E.splendens using PCR-DGGE(polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis) and sequencing. The result showed that the richness of the bacterial community increased, but diversity and evenness remained similar, in the presence of E. splendens.Chloroflexi, Acidobacteria and Proteobacteria were the most dominant bacteria. The relative abundance of dominant and minor bacterial groups showed distinctly different responses to E. splendens. Principal component analysis and redundancy analysis indicated that variation of the bacterial community was determined by multiple factors and might be driven by the tested soil parameters collectively, or alternatively changed through plant root exudates or other microorganisms. Our results enhance the understanding of how the bacterial community associated with a beneficiary plant responds to a benefactor plant and suggests that the changes of bacterial community composition may have far-reaching influence on plant–soil feedback and the aboveground plant community in the long run.     

Grass–legume mixtures can yield more nitrogen than legume pure stands due to mutual stimulation of nitrogen uptake from symbiotic and non-symbiotic sources

Concerted use of legumes and of functional diversity in grassland forage systems can provide major contributions to the challenges of agricultural systems being productive yet environmental friendly. Acquisition and transformation of nitrogen (N) resources by legumes and grasses were studied in a temperate grassland experiment near Zurich (Switzerland) to investigate mechanisms driving effects of functional diversity in mixed swards and to optimise mixtures for efficient resource use.Grass–legume interactions and N availability were varied by manipulating legume percentage of the sward (0–100%) and N fertiliser application (50, 150 or 450 kg of N ha^?1 year^?1). ¹⁵N technology quantified N derived from symbiotic (Nsym) and non-symbiotic (Nnonsym) sources.Generally, acquisition of Nsym by the entire mixture was stimulated by grasses. As a result, strong overyielding of Nsym occurred (e.g. 75 and 114% for year 1 and 2 at N150) and mixtures with only 60% and 37% legumes (year 1 and 2) already attained the same Nsym yield as pure legume stands. Legumes stimulated Nnonsym acquisition by the entire mixture, largely via increased uptake by the grass component. Thus, overyielding of Nnonsym of 31% occurred in year 1 (N150).Mutual grass–legume interactions stimulated acquisition of Nsym, acquisition of Nnonsym and efficient transformation of N into biomass compared to either monocultures. These effects of functional diversity can substantially contribute to productive and resource efficient agricultural grassland systems and were maximised in mixtures with 40–60% legumes.     

西湖龙泓涧流域暴雨径流氮磷流失特征

为掌握西湖入湖溪流龙泓涧流域非点源污染现状,研究了一年内3场暴雨径流过程中营养盐的流失特征.结果表明长历时暴雨事件一般会形成多个径流峰值,而其滞后于雨强峰值的时间取决于当次强降雨的分布.降雨的初期冲刷效应与前期降雨量有关,前期降雨量越少,总磷和氨氮的初期冲刷效应越明显,在退水阶段滞缓的壤中流会使总氮和硝态氮再产生一个浓度峰值.径流中各形态氮素的平均浓度(EMC)与降雨量、降雨历时、最大雨强和平均雨强均表现为负相关,与前5 d的降雨量表现为正相关,而总磷的EMC值与氮素有相反的变化规律.径流营养盐迁移通量随降雨量的增大而上升,Pearson分析表明总氮、硝态氮与径流水深(流量)具有较好的相关性.总磷、总氮、硝态氮和氨氮的平均迁移通量分别为34.10、1 195.55、1 006.62和52.38 g·hm~(-2),硝态氮为主要的氮素迁移类型(占总氮的84%).     

More than euglossines: the diverse pollinators and floral scents of Zygopetalinae orchids

Floral volatile organic compounds (VOCs) play important roles in plant-pollinator interactions. We investigated the reproductive ecology and floral VOCs of Zygopetalinae orchids to understand the relationship between floral scents and pollinators. We performed focal observations, phenological censuses and breeding system experiments in eight species in southeast Brazil. Floral scents were collected and analysed using SPME/GC-MS. We performed multivariate analyses to group species according to affinities of their VOCs and define compounds associated to each plant. Dichaea cogniauxiana was pollinated by weevils which use their developing ovules, while D. pendula was pollinated by the same weevils and perfume-collecting male euglossine bees. The other species were deceit-pollinated by bees. Zygopetalum crinitum was pollinated by carpenter bees, while W. warreana, Z. mackayi and Z. maxillare were bumblebee-pollinated. The latter was also pollinated by Centris confusa. Breeding system varied widely with no association to any pollinator group. Most VOCs are common to other floral scents. Zygopetalum crinitum presented an exclusive blend of VOCs, mainly composed of benzenoids. The scents of Pabstia jugosa, Promenaea xanthina and the Zygopetalum spp. were similar. The bumblebee-pollinated species have flowering periods partially overlapped, thus neither phenology nor pollinators constitute hybridization barriers among these species. Euglossines are not the only pollinators of Zygopetalinae. Different VOCs, size and lifespan of flowers are associated with distinct pollinators. A distinctive VOC bouquet may determine specialisation in carpenter bees or male euglossines within bee-pollinated flowers. Finally, visitation of deceit-pollinated flowers by perfume-collecting euglossines allows us to hypothesise how pollination by this group of bees had evolved.     

植被对绿色屋顶径流量和水质影响

植被是绿色屋顶的关键组成部分,也是影响绿色屋顶径流量和水质的重要因素之一.本文基于大花马齿苋(Portulaca grandiflora)、佛甲草(Sedum lineare)、高羊茅(Festuca elata)和无植被(对照组)这4种植被覆盖类型绿色屋顶2017年植物生长特征、降雨和径流过程的监测,及对雨水和各绿色屋顶径流中营养元素(NH_4~+-N、NO_3~--N、NO_2~--N和PO_4~(3-)-P)与重金属(Cr、Cd、Cu和Ni)的浓度检测,定量分析了不同植被覆盖类型对绿色屋顶径流量和污染负荷的影响.结果表明:①大花马齿苋、佛甲草、高羊茅和对照组绿色屋顶的平均径流削减率分别为51. 3%、41. 5%、36. 3%和33. 0%,大花马齿苋绿色屋顶径流削减率显著高于高羊茅和对照组绿色屋顶(P 0. 05);②大花马齿苋和佛甲草绿色屋顶是NH_4~+-N、NO_3~--N、NO_2~--N和PO_4~(3-)-P的汇,且地上生物量更大的大花马齿苋绿色屋顶对营养元素的污染负荷削减率(分别为59. 6%、99. 9%、82. 5%和25. 7%)均高于佛甲草绿色屋顶(分别为52. 5%、89. 3%、75. 3%和7. 8%),而高羊茅和对照组绿色屋顶是NH_4~+-N和NO_2~--N的汇,是NO_3~--N和PO_4~(3-)-P的源;③大花马齿苋、佛甲草、高羊茅和对照组绿色屋顶均是DCd的汇,污染负荷削减率分别为19. 2%、41. 5%、38. 4%和31. 1%,但4组绿色屋顶均是DCr、DCu和DNi的源.     

不同形态无机氮对水中微量药物安替比林光降解效能影响

在300 W氙灯光照条件下,研究了消炎镇痛类药物安替比林(ANT)在纯水中的光降解效能与机制,重点考察了水中不同形态无机氮及pE值对ANT光降解效能的影响.结果表明,ANT在不同条件下的光降解均符合假一级反应动力学;ANT在纯水中的光降解包括直接光解以及由羟基自由基(.OH)和单线态氧(1O2)参与的自敏化光解,贡献率分别为55.27%、22.19%和22.54%.不同形态无机氮(NH4+、NO2-和NO3-)单独存在条件下对ANT光降解效能的影响差异较大.在pE值较低时,即无机氮主要以NH4+形式存在,对ANT的光降解几乎没有影响;随着pE值的升高(由4.82～6.85),NH4+向NO2-转化,由于NO2-不仅能与ANT竞争吸收光子,同时还对.OH具有较强的淬灭作用,使得其对ANT光降解的抑制作用逐渐增强,当pE值达到6.85,即无机氮主要以NO2-形式存在时,ANT光降解的抑制率达到最高为35.31%;随着pE值的继续升高(由6.85～8.15),NO2-向NO3-转化,对ANT光降解的抑制作用逐渐减弱.