Assessing the value of species: a case study on the willingness to pay for species protection in Chile

We conduct a valuation of species protection in central Chile's Campana National Park (CNP) using the choice experiment (CE) method. The CNP has been recognized as having global relevance for the conservation of biological diversity. Specifically, the aim is to estimate the willingness to pay (WTP) of park visitors for protection of different protected species in the area: popular species of flora and fauna that are known by visitors of the park, inconspicuous species (phytofagous, fungus) that are unknown to visitors, and species with conservation problems of which visitors are unaware. We also investigate the WTP for different levels of species biodiversity protection within the sample as the WTP for biodiversity protection is sensitive to the way in which biodiversity is presented to respondents. The levels of species biodiversity protection are represented using “icon” inconspicuous species and numbers of inconspicuous species protected in La Campana National Park. This methodology allowed us to obtain information on the sensitivity of the participants to the scope of the information provided. Overall, visitors attach positive and significant values to the local conservation of species. These values are derived not only from the desire to preserve popular species in the area but also from the preservation or assured existence of inconspicuous species that are protected in the park. Visitors behave as consumers who are sensitive to changes in the price of park admission as a result of the implementation of specific strategies for wildlife conservation management in the park. Furthermore, the study also elucidates the observations that the public is able to perceive biodiversity conservation in broader terms than a single species and that greater benefits are attached to the conservation of multiple species than single ones. Results also provide insights into methodological considerations regarding the conceptual framework used to assess the valuation of biodiversity changes in developing countries, including the level of biological diversity and the scale of the change.     

The problem of using fixed-area subsampling methods to estimate macroinvertebrate richness: a case study with Neotropical stream data

Subsampling has been widely applied in the laboratory to process freshwater macroinvertebrate samples. Currently, many governmental agencies and research groups apply the fixed-count approach, targeting a number of individuals per sample, and at the same time keeping track of the number of quadrats (fraction of the sample) processed. However, fixed-area methods are still in use. The objective of this paper was to evaluate the reliability of macroinvertebrate taxonomic richness estimates developed from processing a standard number of subsampling quadrats (i.e., fixed-area approaches). We used a dataset from 18 tropical stream sites experiencing three different levels of human disturbance (most-, intermediate-, and least-disturbed). With 12 quadrats processed (half the sample), the collection curves started to stabilize, and for more than half of the sites studied, it was possible to sample at least 80 % of the total taxonomic richness of the sample. However, we observed that the minimum number of quadrats to achieve 80 % of taxonomic richness was strongly negatively correlated with the number of individuals collected in each site: the fewer the individuals in a sample, the greater the processed proportion of that sample needed to represent it properly. Thus our results indicate that for any given areal subsampling effort (any fixed fraction of the sample), samples with different numbers of individuals will be represented differently in terms of the proportion of the total number of taxa of the whole samples, those with greater numbers being overestimated and those with fewer numbers being underestimated. Therefore, we do not recommend the use of fixed-area subsampling methods alone if the main purpose is to measure and analyze taxonomic richness; instead, we encourage researchers to use fixed-count approaches for this purpose.     

The suitability of a single intertidal fish trap for the assessment of long-term trends in fish and epibenthic invertebrate populations

The suitability of a single intertidal fish trap for the assessment of long-term trends in fish and epibenthic invertebrate relies upon the assumption of an on-average constant sampling fraction from the study population. This assumption was examined by comparing trends over years in five different traps within the study area. For some species, like cod, the traps showed more or less parallel fluctuations. This is in agreement with the assumption. However, for other species, like mackerel, the assumption was invalidated by distinct trends over years.Publication no. 62 of the project Applied Scientific Research Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (BEWON)     

The efficacy of protoporphyrin as a predictive biomarker for lead exposure in canvasback ducks: Effect of sample storage time

We used 363 blood samples collected from wild canvasback dueks (Aythya valisineria) at Catahoula Lake, Louisiana, U.S.A. to evaluate the effect of sample storage time on the efficacy of erythrocytic protoporphyrin as an indicator of lead exposure. The protoporphyrin concentration of each sample was determined by hematofluorometry within 5 min of blood collection and after refrigeration at 4 °C for 24 and 48 h. All samples were analyzed for lead by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Based on a blood lead concentration of 0.2 ppm wet weight as positive evidence for lead exposure, the protoporphyrin technique resulted in overall error rates of 29%, 20%, and 19% and false negative error rates of 47%, 29% and 25% when hematofluorometric determinations were made on blood at 5 min, 24 h, and 48 h, respectively. False positive error rates were less than 10% for all three measurement times. The accuracy of the 24-h erythrocytic protoporphyrin classification of blood samples as positive or negative for lead exposure was significantly greater than the 5-min classification, but no improvement in accuracy was gained when samples were tested at 48 h. The false negative errors were probably due, at least in part, to the lag time between lead exposure and the increase of blood protoporphyrin concentrations. False negatives resulted in an underestimation of the true number of canvasbacks exposed to lead, indicating that hematofluorometry provides a conservative estimate of lead exposure.The U.S. Government's right to retain a non-exclusive, royalty-free licence in and to any copyright is acknowledgedDeceased     

Hazard assessment of metals in invasive fish species of the Yamuna River,India in relation to bioaccumulation factor and exposure concentration for human health implications

Monitoring of heavy metals was conducted in the Yamuna River considering bioaccumulation factor, exposure concentration, and human health implications which showed contamination levels of copper (Cu), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), and chromium (Cr) and their dispersion patterns along the river. Largest concentration of Pb in river water was 392 μg L^?1; Cu was 392 μg L^?1 at the extreme downstream, Allahabad and Ni was 146 μg L^?1 at midstream, Agra. Largest concentration of Cu was 617 μg kg^?1, Ni 1,621 μg kg^?1 at midstream while Pb was 1,214 μg kg^?1 at Allahabad in surface sediment. The bioconcentration of Cu, Pb, Ni, and Cr was observed where the largest accumulation of Pb was 2.29 μg kg^?1 in Oreochromis niloticus and 1.55 μg kg^?1 in Cyprinus carpio invaded at Allahabad while largest concentration of Ni was 174 μg kg^?1 in O. niloticus and 124 μg kg^?1 in C. carpio in the midstream of the river. The calculated values of hazard index (HI) for Pb was found more than one which indicated human health concern. Carcinogenic risk value for Ni was again high i.e., 17.02?×?10^?4 which was larger than all other metals studied. The results of this study indicated bioconcentration in fish due to their exposures to heavy metals from different routes which had human health risk implications. Thus, regular environmental monitoring of heavy metal contamination in fish is advocated for assessing food safety since health risk may be associated with the consumption of fish contaminated through exposure to a degraded environment.     

Variations of periphytic diatom sensitivity to the herbicide diuron and relation to species distribution in a contamination gradient: implications for biomonitoring

Diatoms are commonly used as bioindicators of trophic and saprobic pollution in rivers. However, more knowledge is needed concerning their sensitivity to toxicants such as agricultural herbicides. In this study, seven species of periphytic diatoms were isolated from the Morcille River (Beaujolais area, France) which presents a streamward contamination gradient by pesticides and particularly diuron. The sensitivity of these species to diuron was assessed through ecotoxicological tests based on short-term growth inhibition of monospecific cultures. After application of an appropriate toxicological model, EC50 were determined and the species were ranked according to their tolerance. EC50 values ranged from 4.5 to 19 μg L(-1). Finally, the results were related to field periphyton samples from an upstream and a downstream site in order to check if variations in specific relative abundance between sites are consistent with differences in tolerance to diuron. Species distribution between sites was only partially in accordance with toxicological results suggesting that other factors (toxic or trophic) have an important influence on diatom communities in the river. Nevertheless, diatoms showed their potential to indicate water contamination by pesticides and toxic indices could be developed in complement to existing trophic indices.     

Monitoring the drastic growth of ship breaking yards in Sitakunda: a threat to the coastal environment of Bangladesh

The vast coastal and marine resources that occur along the southern edge of Bangladesh make it one of the most productive areas of the world. However, due to growing anthropogenic impacts, this area is under considerable environmental pressure from both physical and chemical stress factors. Ship breaking, or the dismantling and demolition of out-of-service ocean-going vessels, has become increasingly common in many coastal areas. To investigate the extent of ship breaking activities in Bangladesh along the Sitakunda coast, various spatial and non-spatial data were obtained, including remote sensing imagery, statistical records and published reports. Impacts to coastal and marine life were documented. Available data show that ship breaking activities cause significant physical disturbance and release toxic materials into the environment, resulting in adverse effects to numerous marine taxonomic groups such as fish, mammals, birds, reptiles, plants, phytoplankton, zooplankton and benthic invertebrates. Landsat imagery illustrates that the negatively impacted coastal area has grown 308.7 % from 367 ha in 1989 to 1,133 ha in 2010. Physicochemical and biological properties of coastal soil and water indicate substantially elevated pollution that poses a risk of local, regional and even global contamination through sea water and atmospheric transport. While damage to the coastal environment of Bangladesh is a recognized hazard that must be addressed, the economic benefits of ship breaking through job creation and fulfilling the domestic demand for recycled steel must be considered. Rather than an outright ban on beach breaking of ships, the enterprise must be recognized as a true and influential industry that should be held responsible for developing an economically viable and environmentally proactive growth strategy. Evolution of the industry toward a sustainable system can be aided through reasonable and enforceable legislative and judicial action that takes a balanced approach, but does not diminish the value of coastal conservation.     

Assessment of thermal stratification within stream pools as a mechanism to provide refugia for native trout in hot, arid rangelands

Native trout species, such as the redband trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), occupy thermally harsh stream habitats in hot, arid rangeland basins of the western United States. Declines in the distribution and abundance of these species has generated interest in understanding how these cold water species survive in these systems, as well as in identifying opportunities to restore these species to their former ranges. The purpose of this study was to assess the potential for thermal stratification to provide thermal refuge for redband trout in stream pools characterized by warm intermittent flow conditions on arid rangelands. We studied vertical thermal stratification in two pools during three summers on Boles Creek located on the Modoc Plateau in extreme northeastern California. Water and air temperature data were collected on a 0.5 h time step from 15-Jun through 15-Sep during 1996, 1997, and 2000 using commercial temperature data-loggers. Water temperature was measured at the top (0.3 m below pool surface) and bottom (0.3 m above pool substrates) of each pool. Vertical thermal stratification occurred within these pools creating conditions as much as 7.6 ˚C cooler and consistently more constant at the bottom of pools compared to pool surface waters. Thermal stratification was dependent upon air temperature with the magnitude of stratification increasing as air temperature increased. The magnitude of thermal stratification varied significantly from year to year, likely reflecting variation in annual weather conditions. The thermal regime in the study pools was often near the upper lethal limit reported for redband trout, but temperatures at the bottom of these pools did offer refuge from lethal temperatures realized near the pool surface. Temperatures at pool bottom were consistently above optimal levels published for redbands.     

Occurrence of heavy metals in fish: a study for impact assessment in industry prone aquatic environment around Kolkata in India

A study was conducted during November 2005-October 2006 for determining the heavy metal contamination in surface water and sediments and giving prime thrust to determine the heavy metal concentrations fish samples collected from various points of the river Ganga at different time interval. Fish samples (viz., Channa marulius and Aorichthys seengala) were analyzed for heavy metals using standard laboratory procedures by AAS method. In impact points the annual average values for Cu, Cr, Cd, Pb and Zn were 0.15, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02 and 0.29 ppm, respectively. The concentrations of heavy metals in the riverine water collected from middle point had the order Zn > Cu > Cr > Cd > Pb. The data indicated that copper was maximally accumulated in the riverine sediments whereas least annual average concentration was obtained for lead. The trend of accumulation suggested deposition was maximum for zinc and minimum for cadmium in the muscles of both fish species. Only zinc has shown some significant seasonal variation in relation to metal deposition in fish muscles (minimum in monsoon and maximum in summer). The heavy metal contamination to fish may be due to indiscriminate discharge of polluted and untreated sewage sludge to the river. The heavy metal contents in fish at some places are alarming.     

Biological response to physical processes in the Indian Ocean sector of the Southern Ocean: a case study in the coastal and oceanic waters

The spatial variation of chlorophyll a (Chl a) and factors influencing the high Chl a were studied during austral summer based on the physical and biogeochemical parameters collected near the coastal waters of Antarctica in 2010 and a zonal section along 60°S in 2011. In the coastal waters, high Chl a (>3 mg m^?3) was observed near the upper layers (～15 m) between 53°30′E and 54°30′E. A comparatively higher mesozooplankton biomass (53.33 ml 100 m^?3) was also observed concordant with the elevated Chl a. Low saline water formed by melting of glacial ice and snow, as well as deep mixed-layer depth (60 m) due to strong wind (>11 ms^?1) could be the dominant factors for this biological response. In the open ocean, moderately high surface Chl a was observed (>0.6 mg m^?3) between 47°E and 50°E along with a Deep Chlorophyll Maximum of ～1 mg m^?3 present at 30–40 m depth. Melt water advected from the Antarctic continent could be the prime reason for this high Chl a. The mesozooplankton biomass (22.76 ml 100 m^?3) observed in the open ocean was comparatively lower than that in the coastal waters. Physical factors such as melting, advection of melt water from Antarctic continent, water masses and wind-induced vertical mixing may be the possible reasons that led to the increase in phytoplankton biomass (Chl a).     

Modelling the dispersion of treated wastewater in a shallow coastal wind-driven environment,Geographe Bay,Western Australia: implications for environmental management

Numerical models are useful for predicting the transport and fate of contaminants in dynamic marine environments, and are increasingly a practical solution to environmental impact assessments. In this study, a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model and field data were used to validate a far-field dispersion model that, in turn, was used to determine the fate of treated wastewater (TWW) discharged to the ocean via a submarine ocean outfall under hypothetical TWW flows. The models were validated with respect to bottom and surface water current speed and direction, and in situ measurements of total nitrogen and faecal coliforms. Variations in surface and bottom currents were accurately predicted by the model as were nutrient and coliform concentrations. Results indicated that the ocean circulation was predominately wind driven, evidenced by relatively small oscillations in the current speeds along the time-scale of the tide, and that dilution mixing zones were orientated in a predominantly north-eastern direction from the outfall and parallel to the coastline. Outputs of the model were used to determine the ‘footprint’ of the TWW plume under a differing discharge scenario and, particularly, whether the resultant changes in TWW contaminants, total nitrogen and faecal coliforms would meet local environmental quality objectives (EQO) for ecosystem integrity, shellfish harvesting and primary recreation. Modelling provided a practical solution for predicting the dilution of contaminants under a hypothetical discharge scenario and a means for determining the aerial extent of exclusion zones, where the EQOs for shellfish harvesting and primary recreation may not always be met. Results of this study add to the understanding of regional discharge conditions and provide a practical case study for managing impacts to marine environments under a differing TWW discharge scenario, in comparison to an existing scenario.     

Metal contents in coastal waters of San Jorge Bay, Antofagasta, northern Chile: a base line for establishing seawater quality guidelines

We measured the concentration of 12 metals in coastal waters of seven sites of San Jorge Bay in Antofagasta (northern Chile), in order to relate the presence of metals with the different uses of San Jorge Bay coastal border, and to evaluate the quality of the bay's bodies of water according to the proposed current Chilean Quality Guide for trace elements in seawater (CONAMA 2003). The results suggest that the coastal water of San Jorge Bay has very good quality according to the proposed regulation mentioned above. However, the distribution of metals such as Cu and Pb along the bay's coast line evidences a notorious effect of the industrial activity, which would involve different behavior patterns for some trace elements in some bodies of water, suggesting that the levels indicated in the environmental guideline of the Chilean legislation do not represent pollution-free environments.     

Effects of silicon on copper toxicity in Erica andevalensis Cabezudo and Rivera: a potential species to remediate contaminated soils

The influence of silicon on responses to copper excess was studied in plants of Erica andevalensis. Plantlets were grown in nutrient solutions containing two Cu (1 and 500 μM) and three Si concentrations (0, 0.5 and 1 mM). Plant growth, water content, and mineral nutrient concentration were determined. Plants grown with 500 μM Cu showed differences in growth and shoot water content depending on Si supply. The addition of 1 mM Si in high-Cu nutrient solutions significantly improved plant growth and reduced water loss preventing plant death related to Cu-excess. Silicon supply reduced significantly leaf Cu concentration (up to 32%) and increased Cu concentration in roots. Phytoliths isolated from leaves were analysed by scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Such phytoliths consisted in silica deposits associated with Cu and other elements (K, Ca, P). Improvement by Si of Cu tolerance in E. andevalensis was clearly related to the inhibition of Cu upward transport. The leaf phytoliths formed in Si-treated plants might have some contribution to tolerance by Cu immobilisation and inactivation.     

Spatiotemporal variations in species diversity to assess environmental impacts on aquatic communities: The use of biomass data versus density data

This paper discusses various methods for calculating the minimum instream flows for the protection of aquatic life for the purpose of illustrating its increasing complexity. These procedures are the Montana method (Tennant, 1976); the wetted perimeter method (Collings, 1974; Cochnauer, 1976) and the IFIM method (Instream Flow Incremental Methodology; Bovee, 1982). An analysis is then made of some regionalisation criteria based on these methods, from which useful suggestions can be drawn for the development of a procedure to be applied to basins. A method is thus proposed for calculating the recommended flows for protecting the aquatic environment based on simple hydrological variables, such as Q_{7 10}, which can be estimated for a basin on the basis of area A and a Base Flow Index (BFI) which summarises its hydrogeological characteristics. This approach can be used when the field data necessary for more complex methods is not available. These require the defining of the environmental suitability of a watercourse for certain designated reference fish species, according to the flow and the morphology of the channel. The positive results of this approach were verified by Leonard (1990) and this methodology was applied to the Tiber river basin.     

The need for ecological monitoring of freshwaters in a changing world: a case study of Lakes Annecy,Bourget, and Geneva

Lakes Annecy, Bourget, and Geneva are large, deep carbonated peri-alpine lakes in eastern France. They are located in the same ecoregion but have been subject to differing degrees of anthropogenic pressure over the past decades. A comparative analysis of these ecosystems can therefore provide valuable information on how the lakes have responded to changes in phosphorus runoff, fish management practices, and global warming. Each of these lakes has undergone a restoration process, and changes in water quality and trophic state, as measured using parameters like transparency, chlorophyll a, nutrient concentrations, and phytoplankton biomass and structure, can be used to evaluate efforts made to preserve these ecosystems. Our results reveal that (1) peri-alpine lakes are exemplary cases of restoration in the world where freshwater eutrophication is on the increase, and (2) efforts must be maintained because of the new context of climate change, the effects of which on the quality and the ecological functioning of lakes are still poorly understood.     

Internationalization of EIA in a new marine biodiversity agreement under the Law of the Sea Convention: A proposal for a tiered approach to review and decision-making

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is one of the four main elements of the package being negotiated in the Intergovernmental Conference to develop an international legally binding instrument under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ agreement). “Internationalization” of EIA under the agreement, which partly relates to the international community's role in oversight and outcome of the process, remains a contentious issue that requires continued consideration. Less controversial aspects of internationalization in the EIA process are internationalization of consultation and dissemination of information. They are shown to be critical to achieving quality outcomes and encouraging transparency and accountability. This paper addresses a third dimension of internationalization, relating to review and decision-making, which is proving to be the most divisive in the negotiations to date. This aspect of internationalization is fundamental to allowing decisions taken on proposed activities to be seen as legitimate but concerns exist about the bureaucracy and costs that the process may entail, as well as potential interference with sovereign rights of States Parties under UNCLOS. This paper advances a proposal for internationalization of review and decision-making under the BBNJ agreement that attempts to bridge the divide evident going into the 4th session of the Inter-governmental Conference in 2021.     

The community cost of consultation: Characterising the qualitative social impacts of a wind energy development that failed to proceed in Tasmania,Australia

Energy developments affect communities in a range of ways. Impacts on communities can be caused by changes to landscape amenity and access, disruptions to community cohesion, increased or decreased income streams, effects on property values, and population changes. These changes are ideally captured in the social impact assessment (SIA) process, where proponents outline in a formal statement the balance of benefits and burdens on local communities, and measures that will be taken to minimise negative outcomes for the community. In SIA practice there is a tendency toward quantitative socio-economic impacts, such as changes to demographics, income, and land values, with some qualitative assessment of amenity impacts. While the academic literature promotes inclusion of changes to the community itself, such as impacts on community cohesion and social capital, these qualitative changes are not consistently evident in SIA practice. Additionally, SIA practice assesses the impacts of the project, i.e. how the development of wind turbines or other energy infrastructure will affect the community. Because the consultation process around a proposed project typically commences prior to the characterisation and assessment of any associated social impacts and the finalisation of the SIA process, the potential impacts of this consultation are rarely, if ever, evaluated. Here, we examine a case study of an Australian wind energy project that did not proceed to implementation. Through this case study we are able to analyse the anticipatory impacts of the proposal; those stemming from the consultative process rather than the development of the project itself. We present these qualitative social changes, and outline the pathways through which the social changes manifest in two overarching social impacts: a divided community and future development capacity. We discuss the implications of this analysis in the context of good engagement practice and energy governance.