Disposal practices for unused medications in New Zealand

BackgroundThere is an enhanced international awareness that the improper disposal of unwanted and unused medications may have a detrimental effect on the environment.ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to determine the proportion of unused medications in New Zealand that are not returned to a pharmacy for disposal and are instead disposed of via land fill or water systems. In addition, this study intended to identify why these medications were unused or unwanted.DesignAn online survey was placed on the New Zealand National Poisons Centre website for a period of three months during 2008. This consisted of a series of questions with predefined answer sets and asked about collection of medications, why there may be unused medications, storage of medications and disposal of medications.ResultsThis survey was completed by 452 individuals. 62% of respondents currently had unwanted medications in their house. The most common reason for people to have leftover medication was ‘medical condition improved or resolved’ (n = 307). Depending on formulation type, between 13–24% of unused medications were returned to pharmacies with tablets and capsules being most likely to be returned and liquids most likely to be added to water systems.ConclusionsA significant percentage of unwanted medications are disposed of via routes that have the potential to adversely affect the environment. Reducing excess medications and wastage as well as education of appropriate disposal techniques may minimize their potential impact on the environment.     

Modeling human exposures to air pollution control (APC) residues released from landfills in England and Wales

Human exposures to air pollution control (APC) residues released from 6 landfills were modeled and assessed. Following a qualitative risk characterisation, direct and indirect exposures were quantified. Site-specific air dispersion modeling was conducted for PM(10), PCDDs/PCDFs, Pb, Cd, As and Cr(VI) concentrations at the closest residential points of exposure for 4 landfill sites accepting, in total, 75% w/w of the APC residues disposed of in 2000-2001 (UK). Inhalation risks, assessed by reference to air quality standards at residential exposure points, were assessed as insignificant. Preliminary modeling suggested that indirect exposures from PCDDs/PCDFs at the 95th percentile level for the site where APC deposition rates were highest could potentially exceed the tolerable daily soil intake (TDSI) but this warrants further study given the model limitations. These results offer an initial screen of the significance of potential risks from APC disposal, which is of value in addressing concerns about the uncertainty of potential risks to human health from bulk APC disposal at strategic locations.     

Marine water quality assessment at Mumbai West Coast

In recent past, Mumbai Municipal corporation was not able to keep pace with required infrastructural facilities due to unprecedented population growth. Sewage disposal is one of the major issues, which needed immediate attention because huge quantity of sewage with only preliminary treatment is disposed into the nearby coastal areas and has deteriorated the water quality of the near coastal region. World Bank assisted Bombay Sewage Disposal Project (BSDP) undertaken by the Municipal Corporation of Bruhan Mumbai (MCBM) envisaged sewage discharges through marine outfalls at Worli and Bandra and treatment by aerated lagoons for other areas before disposal in creeks. During BSDP programme, studies were undertaken on water quality assessment along the west coast of Mumbai before and after commissioning of the Worli outfall. A pre- and post-commissioning water quality database for selected parameters was generated for near shore as well as west coast region up to 5 km seaward distance to assess the efficacy of the Worli outfall and delineate the areas affected around diffuser location of the outfall due to sewage disposal. This paper presents observations of the coastal studies at Mumbai and the impact zone of Worli outfall.     

河流生态用水综合评价

为完善河流生态用水综合评价,从水循环中河流生态用水角度出发,以河流水量收支平衡规律为理论基础,考虑河流本底水质,采用本底水质、排放水质和河流控制目标污染物浓度表达河流生态新污径比,并推导出污水排放允许极限值,深入探讨了河流生态用水的质与量综合评价,改进了二元循环下河流生态用水的水量水质计算方法和河流生态用水的综合评价新标准,进一步完善了河流生态用水质与量综合评价模型。用此模型对黄河2002～2005年为例进行实力分析,结果表明：①在污水一级达标排放和不调水情况下,黄河生态用水水量比例在335%～545%,在Tennant等级中为较好状态,但水质不满足要求,bo>Blim;②在污水深度处理达到95 mg/L（COD）,不调水情况下,黄河生态用水质与量满足生态环境需水要求,综合评价合格;③在污水一级达标排放和南水北调调水40亿m3情况下,黄河生态用水水量比例有较大提高,综合评价合格。这说明,黄河生态用水问题不仅是水量短缺,而且水质问题更加严重。     

Pharmaceuticals in soils of lower income countries: Physico-chemical fate and risks from wastewater irrigation

Population growth, increasing affluence, and greater access to medicines have led to an increase in active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) entering sewerage networks. In areas with high wastewater reuse, residual quantities of APIs may enter soils via irrigation with treated, partially treated, or untreated wastewater and sludge. Wastewater used for irrigation is currently not included in chemical environmental risk assessments and requires further consideration in areas with high water reuse. This study critically assesses the contemporary understanding of the occurrence and fate of APIs in soils of low and lower-middle income countries (LLMIC) in order to contribute to the development of risk assessments for APIs in LLMIC. The physico-chemical properties of APIs and soils vary greatly globally, impacting on API fate, bioaccumulation and toxicity. The impact of pH, clay and organic matter on the fate of organic ionisable compounds is discussed in detail. This study highlights the occurrence and the partitioning and degradation coefficients for APIs in soil:porewater systems, API usage data in LLMICS and removal rates (where used) within sewage treatment plants as key areas where data are required in order to inform robust environmental risk assessment methodologies.     

黄浦江上游地区水环境污染负荷特征

通过调查黄浦江上游地区的水环境污染来源、污染负荷及其特征，为管理部门控制污染、提高上游地区水环境质量提供科学依据。调查中了解到污染源种类主要有4类：工业、事业、生活和畜禽污染源；水源保护区内年用水量为22196万t．污水量为17755万t／a，其中工业污染源352个，排放量占46．3％，事业污染源4108个。排放量占22．3％，生活污水排放量占30．6％．畜禽污水排放量占0．8％；黄浦江上游水源保护区污染源排放去向主要分4种：直排河道（占40．4％），进入市政泵站后排出（占3．9％）。经污水处理厂处理后排出（占20．5％），通过合流污水收集系统排出（占35．3％）。根据黄浦江上游地区水环境污染负荷特征，建议黄浦江上游区域进一步调整和完善不同区域的功能定位，优化产业结构和布局，构建利于水源保护的区域发展模式和格局；通过采取污染控制和生态环境建设并重的一系列措施，有效抑制生态环境恶化趋势，促进黄浦江上游上游水环境质量的改善。确保上海市的饮用水安全。     

三峡水库入库污染负荷研究(Ⅰ)--蓄水前污染负荷现状

分析蓄水前三峡水库入库污染负荷,包括库区污染负荷,如城市生活污水、工业废水、农业面源、船舶流动污染源;主要干支流长江、嘉陵江、乌江的入库背景污染负荷,包括上游天然背景负荷和上游污染贡献负荷,为三峡水库水污染防治提供理论依据。研究表明：①进入三峡库区的污染源主要来自长江、嘉陵江、乌江上游输入的背景负荷,包括上游贡献负荷和天然背景负荷,其中：CODCr的天然背景负荷与上游污染贡献负荷较为接近,BOD5、NH3-N的上游贡献负荷略大于天然背景负荷;TP的上游贡献负荷远大于天然背景负荷。因此,“三江”上游区域的污染治理工作应为今后三峡水库水污染防治的重点;②库区内排放的主要污染物是TP、BOD5、TN、CODCr等有机污染物,其累计等标污染负荷比达到98%以上。库区内的主要污染源为农田径流,其等标污染负荷比为77.85%;其次为城市污水,其等标污染负荷比为19.45%,工业废水的等标污染负荷比只占1.62%。因此,农田面源将是今后库区污染防治的重点。     

基于博弈论的非点源污染控制模型探讨

随着对工业和城市生活污水等点源污染治理能力的不断增强,农业非点源污染对水质环境的影响日益凸现.相对于点源污染,非点源污染发生的不确定时间、不确定途径、不确定量等特点给治理政策的制定带来很大难度.本文从著名的公地悲剧现象出发,着力从市场博弈及政府监督博弈两个模型分析非点源污染制造者之间的博弈格局,并提出以“集体表现”的形式对非点源污染进行管理和控制.市场博弈模型中以一定的排污削减目标为前提,确定以成本最优的原则进行点源-非点源排污权交易是可行且有效率的;而政府监督博弈模型的结果显示:合理的环境补贴和惩罚机制、政府对自身声誉及公众形象的重视及维护对非点源污染治理起正向促进作用.     

Distributions of zinc, copper, cadmium and lead in a tropical ultisol after long-term disposal of sewage sludge

Heavy metals present in soils constitute serious environmental hazards from the point of view of polluting the soils and adjoining streams and rivers. The distribution of heavy metals in a sandy Ultisol (Arenic Kandiustult) in south eastern Nigeria subjected to 40 years disposal of sewage wastes (sludge and effluents) was studied using two profile pits (S/NSK/1 and S/NSK/2) sited in the sewage disposal area and one profile pit (NS/NSK) sited in the non-sewage disposal area. Soil samples were collected in duplicate from these soil horizons and analyzed for their heavy metal contents. The mean concentrations of Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb in the top- and sub-soil horizons of sewage soil were 79.3, 32, 0.29 and 1.15 mg/kg, respectively. These levels were high enough to constitute health and phytotoxic risks. All the metal levels were much higher in the AB horizon in the sewage than in the non-sewage soil profile, but Pb and Cu contents were also high down to the Bt1 horizon, indicating their apparent relatively high mobility in this soil. There was a significant correlation between organic matter (OM) and Zn (r=0.818**), and between OM and Cd (0.864**) in the sewage soil. The high OM status of the sewage sludge, together with its corresponding low pH, might have favoured metal-OM complexation that could reduce heavy metal mobility and phytotoxicity in this soil.     

Study of water quality of Hudiara drain, India-Pakistan

This paper examines the extent of pollution in Hudiara drain water due to untreated industrial and sewage waste of India and Pakistan. Ninety-nine surface water samples from the Pakistani side of the Hudiara drain were collected during September 1997, and April and June 1998. The analytical results of the Hudiara drain samples point out the industrial and sewage inputs from India and Pakistan. Higher values of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand(COD), total organic carbon(TOC), and trace metals in drain samples from the Indo-Pak border clearly indicate the Indian industrial and sewage pollution. Large variations in the levels of various measured parameters (COD, BOD, TOC, pH, total soluble substances, and trace metals) were observed along the Hudiara drain in the Pakistani vicinity. These variations were due to different types of industrial effluents and small village drains. The study showed that suspended solids(SS), COD, and fecal coliform (FC) were the major pollutants. Accordingly, the most feasible alternative is to convert the drainage network to a sedimentation and temporary storage reservoir. If disinfected, the runoff water can be used for restricted irrigation. Groundwater samples taken from the drain's surrounding area have also been analyzed. Thirty percent of the samples are not fit for drinking purposes due to NO3-N, Se and FC counts as prescribed by World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. A trilinear diagram clearly indicates the influence of surface water of the Hudiara drain on ground water; moreover, higher values of nitrate and FC clearly indicate the seepage from the Hudiara drain.     

中国城市污水处理良性运营机制探讨

污水处理不仅能减轻水污染排放，而又是开源节流、实现污水资源化的前提，是解决城市缺水问题的基本途径之一。然而中国城市污水处理面临着设施不足、处理率低和处理资金不足的问题。本文从分析产生上述问题的原因着手，提出城市污水处理业的发展必须走市场化的道路。     

Hazardous waste, impact on health and environment for development of better waste management strategies in future in India

Industry has become an essential part of modern society, and waste production is an inevitable outcome of the developmental activities. A material becomes waste when it is discarded without expecting to be compensated for its inherent value. These wastes may pose a potential hazard to the human health or the environment (soil, air, water) when improperly treated, stored, transported or disposed off or managed. Currently in India even though hazardous wastes, emanations and effluents are regulated, solid wastes often are disposed off indiscriminately posing health and environmental risk. In view of this, management of hazardous wastes including their disposal in environment friendly and economically viable way is very important and therefore suggestions are made for developing better strategies. Out of the various categories of the wastes, solid waste contributes a major share towards environmental degradation. The present paper outlines the nature of the wastes, waste generating industries, waste characterization, health and environmental implications of wastes management practices, steps towards planning, design and development of models for effective hazardous waste management, treatment, approaches and regulations for disposal of hazardous waste. Appraisal of the whole situation with reference to Indian scenario is attempted so that a better cost-effective strategies for waste management be evolved in future.     

Current Status of Manufacturing Hazardous Waste in Shanghai

It is difficult to manage the manufacturing hazardous waste （MHW） which is generated from a huge amount of complicated sources and causes very serious pollution. Therefore more and more attention has been paid to MHW pollution. Shanghai, as an industrial and economic center and an international metropolis in China, has a vast industrial system spanning a multitude of sectors, which generates MHW not only in a huge magnitude but also in a large variety of types from complicated sources, resulting in severe pollution. In 2003, the production of MHW in Shanghai is about 3.96 × 10^5 ton, involving 33 indices. Most of MHW in Shanghai is treated and disposed of, but a significant portion is not handled properly and effectively. This paper carries out infield investigation on the current status of MHW production and treatment in Shanghai, and puts forward scientific proposals that Shanghai should facilitate cleaner production and minimize haz- ardous waste; strictly enforce hazardous waste registration system, strengthen monitoring the certified enterprises; strengthen intent disposal center construction and realize hazardous waste reclamation; accelerate establishing the technical criteria and the management policy, promote the research and development on the treatment and disposal technology, and strengthen information management, thus realizing integrated management on MHW pollution.     

太湖水环境演变与流域经济发展关系及趋势

运用多元线性回归分析,定量研究了1990~2000年太湖水环境演变与流域内社会经济发展之间的关系,并根据此相关关系对未来30年太湖水质的污染状况进行了预测。根据研究成果推断：太湖地区的污染物来源在未来30年内可能将发生较大变化,农业及生活污水所占的比重可能会持续增加,并成为主要的污染来源。因此,建议在开展针对工业点源污染而采取的达标排放的同时,还必须加强农业面源污染的治理力度,“点源与面源相结合”,以利于太湖水环境的有效改善。     

污染河道的常量和微量元素特征及指示意义

河道常量元素和微量元素的分布既反映了不同的来源,又显示了污染水平。选择太湖周边具有不同污染源特征的漕桥河、梁溪河和大浦河,针对水体、悬浮物、沉积物3种不同介质,研究其化学元素含量及变化。微量元素特征及变化分析表明,3条河流整体上磷的含量较高,金属元素在城镇和工业区河段较高。元素主成分分析显示,接纳工业废水、生活污水和农田径流的河流,主成分组成差别明显。元素特征对比值结果表明,不同介质中元素对的变化并不一致,不同河道大体反映了工业废水、农田径流和生活污水的特点;分配系数〖WTBX〗KD〖WTBZ〗值的大小顺序为Fe>Al>Zn>Cr>Ni>K,多数元素的〖WTBX〗KD〖WTBZ〗值都是漕桥河最高,梁溪河最低,Zn的〖WTBX〗KD〖WTBZ〗值则是大浦河最高,漕桥河最低,反映了不同污染源的特征差别。指示元素的研究对于污染河道的治理是有意义的。     

Modelling treated waste disposal in Port Phillip Bay and Bass Strait biogeochemical and physical removal.

Large cities, such as Melbourne, generate substantial quantities of sewage, which, after treatment, must be disposed. Melbourne's sewage is disposed via two routes, that treated at the Western Treatment Plant (WTP) is discharged in enclosed Port Phillip Bay, while the Boags Rock outfall empties into the exposed Bass Strait. In Port Phillip Bay biogeochemical processes control the fate of waste, while in the Bass Strait physical mixing rapidly disperses the waste. These different processes require very different ecosystem models. Port Phillip Bay requires detailed modelling of water-column and in-sediment processes, in particular detailed models of recycling processes, and also modelling of benthos-water-column interactions. Interaction of these components gives the model a nonlinear response to change in load. The Bass Strait ecosystem model is simple with no modelling of the sediment and limited modelling of water-column recycling. This model's behaviour is largely controlled by the physical environment.     

The significance of different health institutions and their respective contributions of active pharmaceutical ingredients to wastewater

Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) have been frequently found in the environment. It is, however, still not quite clear who is mainly responsible for API emissions. Hospitals have been considered to be the main contributing point sources for wastewater (WW) discharge of APIs. However, recent studies have shown that the contribution of hospitals to the input of APIs into the aquatic environment is quite low. Due to demographic change and the increase of psychiatric diseases, health institutions (HIs) such as psychiatric hospitals and nursing homes are likely to be important sources as well, but no data is available in this respect. This study aims to assess the impact of HIs and to provide a methodology to measure their respective contributions. Drawing on pharmaceutical consumption data for the years 2010, 2011, and 2012, this study identified API usage patterns for a psychiatric hospital (146 beds), a nursing home (286 inhabitants), and a general hospital (741 beds), the latter of which comprises three separate locations. All the HIs are located in two sub-regions of a county district with about 400,000 citizens in southwestern Germany. A selection of neurological drugs was quantified in the sewer of these facilities to evaluate the correlation between consumption and emission. The API contribution of HIs was assessed by comparing the specific consumption in the facilities with the consumption in households, expressed as the emission potential (I_EP). The study shows that the usage patterns of APIs in the psychiatric hospital and the nursing home were different from the general hospital. Neurological drugs such as anticonvulsants, psycholeptics, and psychoanaleptics were mainly consumed in the psychiatric hospital and the nursing home (74% and 65%, respectively). Predicted and average measured concentrations in the effluent of the investigated HIs differed mostly by less than one order of magnitude. Therefore, the consumption-based approach is a useful method to assess usage patterns of APIs in HIs and to predict their respective contributions to WW. The national contribution of HIs on total WW discharge of APIs compared to households was very low. Only the results for the sedative clomethiazole in general hospitals as well as the antidepressant moclobemide and the antipsychotic quetiapine for the nursing homes were found to deserve some attention. The regional comparison showed that in sub-regions with a comparably higher density of HIs, the allocated facilities could be seen as point sources emitting particular APIs. However, in general, the bulk of the consumed pharmaceuticals to WW discharge has to be attributed to households.     

Trace element pollution records in some UK lake sediments, their history, influence factors and regional differences

Sediment cores were taken from six sites across the UK. Apart from Banbury Reservoir in London, all the other sites are relatively remote lakes. Trace elements Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, Sn, As and V, major elements such as Fe, Mn, Ti and Al were analysed, and organic content measured as loss-on-ignition was determined in all of these cores. The result shows that these relatively remote sites have experienced enhanced atmospheric deposition of anthropogenically derived trace elements for over 100 years, and the contamination might start before industrialisation. Trace metal contamination remains the highest level at Banbury Reservoir showing "pollution source" influence. Despite the considerable reduction in atmospheric deposition in recent years, although some of the element concentrations in the surface sediments have declined, they are still much higher than their natural background values. In these sites, trace element pollution records have been influenced by many different factors. Redox condition could affect As distribution in the sediments. Sediment matrix could also affect trace element pollution signal. Apart from direct atmospheric deposition, the distributions of trace elements in the sediments have been affected by forestry activities and catchment erosion, and more contaminated soil in-wash could increase sediment pollution whilst less contaminated soil could dilute sediment pollution. In some sites, data suggest that catchment in-wash is an important source of elements for the lakes.     

Current Status of Manufacturing Hazardous Waste in Shanghai

Abstract

It is difficult to manage the manufacturing hazardous waste (MHW) which is generated from a huge amount of complicated sources and causes very serious pollution. Therefore more and more attention has been paid to MHW pollution. Shanghai, as an industrial and economic center and an international metropolis in China, has a vast industrial system spanning a multitude of sectors, which generates MHW not only in a huge magnitude but also in a large variety of types from complicated sources, resulting in severe pollution. In 2003, the production of MHW in Shanghai is about 3.96 × 10⁵ ton, involving 33 indices. Most of MHW in Shanghai is treated and disposed of, but a significant portion is not handled properly and effectively. This paper carries out in-field investigation on the current status of MHW production and treatment in Shanghai, and puts forward scientific proposals that Shanghai should facilitate cleaner production and minimize hazardous waste; strictly enforce hazardous waste registration system, strengthen monitoring the certified enterprises; strengthen intent disposal center construction and realize hazardous waste reclamation; accelerate establishing the technical criteria and the management policy, promote the research and development on the treatment and disposal technology, and strengthen information management, thus realizing integrated management on MHW pollution.