Gender in integrated water management: an analysis of variation

Gender is an important variable in water use, policy, and intervention. This article explores this variation and its policy implications. Concepts are applied in several case studies to draw generic conclusions. Variation is related to the purpose of water use (consumptive or productive) and to the local, culture-specific patterns of the intra-household organization of consumption for family welfare (which includes domestic water provision) and income-generation (for which water is an input, especially in rural areas). For domestic water use, the intra-household sharing of unpaid domestic responsibilities is a key gender issue. Water for productive use, on the other hand, is embedded in the gendered organization of household economic activity, as elaborated for smallholder-irrigated agriculture. In female-managed and dual farming systems, where a high proportion of farm decision-makers are women, irrigation agencies need to better target their support. In male-managed farming systems, however, the majority of women lack their own farm enterprise in which water is an input. Women's access to land, markets and credits besides access to water, is at stake. To conclude, given the strong variation in water use along gender lines, gender analysis is indispensable for any concrete water policy and intervention.     

Process‐orientation versus outcome‐orientation during organizational change: the role of organizational identification

In this paper we argue that organizational identification is predictive of employee interests and concerns during periods of organizational change. More specifically, we assert that organizational identification may largely determine whether employees may be focused upon the change related outcomes (e.g., salary, expenses, etc.), or on the change processes (e.g., procedures, voice and participation options, etc.). Data of both a scenario experiment and a survey are presented indicating that high and low identifiers indeed are differentially interested in process and outcome information. The results suggest that people who identify less with the organization are more likely to be focused upon the change outcomes then on the change process, while people who identify highly (i.e., deep structure) with the organization are more likely to be focused upon the change processes then on the change outcomes. The benefits of awareness of organizational members' level of identification for organizational change management are discussed. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Intrinsic worker mortality depends on behavioral caste and the queens’ presence in a social insect

According to the classic life history theory, selection for longevity depends on age-dependant extrinsic mortality and fecundity. In social insects, the common life history trade-off between fecundity and longevity appears to be reversed, as the most fecund individual, the queen, often exceeds workers in lifespan several fold. But does fecundity directly affect intrinsic mortality also in social insect workers? And what is the effect of task on worker mortality? Here, we studied how social environment and behavioral caste affect intrinsic mortality of ant workers. We compared worker survival between queenless and queenright Temnothorax longispinosus nests and demonstrate that workers survive longer under the queens’ absence. Temnothorax ant workers fight over reproduction when the queen is absent and dominant workers lay eggs. Worker fertility might therefore increase lifespan, possibly due to a positive physiological link between fecundity and longevity, or better care for fertile workers. In social insects, division of labor among workers is age-dependant with young workers caring for the brood and old ones going out to forage. We therefore expected nurses to survive longer than foragers, which is what we found. Surprisingly, inactive inside workers showed a lower survival than nurses but comparable to that of foragers. The reduced longevity of inactive workers could be due to them being older than the nurses, or due to a positive effect of activity on lifespan. Overall, our study points to behavioral caste-dependent intrinsic mortality rates and a positive association between fertility and longevity not only in queens but also in ant workers.     

Impacts of epigeic, anecic and endogeic earthworms on metal and metalloid mobility and availability

The introduction of earthworms into soils contaminated with metals and metalloids has been suggested to aid restoration practices. Eisenia veneta (epigeic), Lumbricus terrestris (anecic) and Allolobophora chlorotica (endogeic) earthworms were cultivated in columns containing 900 g soil with 1130, 345, 113 and 131 mg kg(-1) of As, Cu, Pb and Zn, respectively, for up to 112 days, in parallel with earthworm-free columns. Leachate was produced by pouring water on the soil surface to saturate the soil and generate downflow. Ryegrass was grown on the top of columns to assess metal uptake into biota. Different ecological groups affected metals in the same way by increasing concentrations and free ion activities in leachate, but anecic L. terrestris had the greatest effect by increasing leachate concentrations of As by 267%, Cu by 393%, Pb by 190%, and Zn by 429% compared to earthworm-free columns. Ryegrass grown in earthworm-bearing soil accumulated more metal and the soil microbial community exhibited greater stress. Results are consistent with earthworm enhanced degradation of organic matter leading to release of organically bound elements. The degradation of organic matter also releases organic acids which decrease the soil pH. The earthworms do not appear to carry out a unique process, but increase the rate of a process that is already occurring. The impact of earthworms on metal mobility and availability should therefore be considered when inoculating earthworms into contaminated soils as new pathways to receptors may be created or the flow of metals and metalloids to receptors may be elevated.