Fieldfare (Turdus pilaris) breeding success in relation to colony size,nest position and association with Merlins (Falco columbarius)

Summary Clutch size, nestling production and breeding success were studied in colonial Fieldfares (Turdus pilaris) in a subalpine birch forest during ten breeding seasons. Reproductive success was highest for central pairs in large colonies; such pairs benefited most from communal defence against nest predators. Fieldfares and Merlins (Falco columbarius) usually bred in association. Fieldfares breeding away from Merlins had lower breeding success than pairs associated with Merlins, which also benefited by reduced nest predation. Fieldfares apparently chose to nest near Merlins, which had already laid eggs when the thrushes started nest-building.     

Restoration of rivers used for timber floating: effects on riparian plant diversity.

Fluvial processes such as flooding and sediment deposition play a crucial role in structuring riparian plant communities. In rivers throughout the world, these processes have been altered by channelization and other anthropogenic stresses. Yet despite increasing awareness of the need to restore natural flow regimes for the preservation of riparian biodiversity, few studies have examined the effects of river restoration on riparian ecosystems. In this study, we examined the effects of restoration in the Ume River system, northern Sweden, where tributaries were channelized to facilitate timber floating in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Restoration at these sites involved the use of heavy machinery to replace instream boulders and remove floatway structures that had previously lined stream banks and cut off secondary channels. We compared riparian plant communities along channelized stream reaches with those along reaches that had been restored 3-10 years prior to observation. Species richness and evenness were significantly increased at restored sites, as were floodplain inundation frequencies. These findings demonstrate how river restoration and associated changes in fluvial disturbance regimes can enhance riparian biodiversity. Given that riparian ecosystems tend to support a disproportionate share of regional species pools, these findings have potentially broad implications for biodiversity conservation at regional or landscape scales.     

Protein content of spermatophores in relation to monandry/polyandry in butterflies

The evolution of a mating system, and specifically mating frequency, is dependent on the costs and benefits to both sexes of mating once or several times. In butterflies, males transfer a spermatophore that contains both sperm and accessory gland products. Accessory gland substances contain nutrients which, in some species, females use to increase their reproductive output and longevity. Nutrients contained in these packaged ejaculates represent investment by males in reproduction. Consequently, the nutritional composition of spermatophores may vary depending on the mating system. There are two lines of arguments concerning the evolution of the nutrient content of ejaculates. One hypothesis argues that male nuptial gifts evolved in the context of certainty of paternity and ease of finding mates; thus spermatophores of polyandrous males (with lower certainty of paternity and greater ease of finding mates) should contain less protein than those of monandrous males, since more spermatophores are produced on average. The other hypothesis argues that polyandry evolved in the context of maximization of male transfer of nutrients to females, and hence spermatophores of polyandrous males should contain more protein than those of monandrous males. In an attempt to distinguish between these two hypotheses, we determined how protein content of ejaculates varied with the degree of polyandry in nine species of pierid and two species of satyrid butterflies. We found that both relative ejaculate mass and protein content increased with the degree of polyandry. Hence our results are consistent with the view that polyandry has evolved in the context of male transfer of nutrients to females, and provides another example of a male adaptation to multiple mating in butterflies.     

Effects of size and nuptial gifts on butterfly reproduction: can females compensate for a smaller size through male-derived nutrients?

In butterflies and other insects, fecundity generally increases with female adult weight. Hence, most butterflies are essentially "capital breeders", because nutrients acquired during the larval stage are stored and subsequently used for egg production during the adult stage. However, in some species, males transfer a large nutritious ejaculate to the female at mating. These females can partly be characterized as "income breeders", and female mass can potentially be decoupled from fecundity to some extent. In the gift-giving green-veined white butterfly Pieris napi, it has been shown that female fecundity and longevity increase with number of matings and also that females mature at smaller size under poor food conditions compared to males. So it has been suggested that females can compensate for their smaller size through nuptial feeding. Here we test this hypothesis in P. napi by assessing female fecundity and longevity in relation to female mass and polyandry. The results showed no support for the hypothesis. Smaller females were not capable of increasing their mating rate to compensate for a low weight at eclosion. Instead, larger females remated sooner. Also, smaller females suffered from both a reduced daily and total fecundity compared to larger females and this decrease in fecundity was independent of female mating status, i.e. females allowed to mate only once and multiply mated females suffered to the same extent from their smaller size.     

Food information in the Black-headed Gull,Larus ridibundus

Summary The information-centre hypothesis suggests that bird colonies function as sources of information about good feeding sites, to which unsuccessful birds may follow foragers. One assumption of the hypothesis is that unusually successful foragers are followed by other colony members when returning to a newly found, rich food source. We tested this assumption in a colony of Black-headed Gulls (Larus ridibundus). Parents feeding their young from a rich, artificial food source were observed on their return trips to the feeding site. In none of 50 cases did other colony members follow them to the newly found food. However, the gulls were attracted to groups of foraging conspecifics. In experiments with paired food piles and a group of model gulls at one pile in each pair, Black-headed Gulls always alighted first at the piles with models. Hence the information-centre mechanism was refuted, but the gulls did acquire food information from each other in another way.     

“An eye for an eye?”—on the generality of the intimidating quality of eyespots in a butterfly and a hawkmoth

Large eyespots on the wings of butterflies and moths have been ascribed generally intimidating qualities by creating a frightening image of a bird or mammal much larger than the insect bearing the eyespots. However, evidence for this anti-predator adaptation has been largely anecdotal and only recently were peacock butterflies, Inachis io, shown to effectively thwart attacks from blue tits, Parus caeruleus. Here, we test whether large eyespots on lepidopterans are generally effective in preventing attacks from small passerines and whether the size of insect or bird can influence the outcome of interactions. We staged experiments between the larger eyed hawkmoths, Smerinthus ocellatus, and the smaller peacock butterflies, I. io, and the larger great tits, Parus major, and the smaller blue tits, P. caeruleus. Survival differed substantially between the insect species with 21 of 24 peacock butterflies, but only 6 of 27 eyed hawkmoths, surviving attacks from the birds. Thus, surprisingly, the smaller prey survived to a higher extent, suggesting that factors other than insect size may be important. However, great tits were less easily intimidated by the insects’ eyespots and deimatic behaviour and consumed 16 of 26, but the blue tits only 8 of 25, of the butterflies and hawkmoths. Our results demonstrate that eyespots per se do not guarantee survival and that these two insects bearing equally large eyespots are not equally well protected against predation.     

Evaluation of potential dermal exposure of pesticide spray operators in greenhouses by use of visible tracers

In the present study, the potential dermal and inhalation exposure of the operator was measured, following simulation of insecticide application with the dye tracer Sunset Yellow in greenhouse cucumbers and tomatoes. For the monitoring of operator exposure, the whole body technique was used. The potential inhalation exposure was measured with a personal air sampler equipped with a glass fiber filter. The potential dermal operator exposure ranged from 84.4 to 526.7 ml of spray solution (s.s.)/h for the whole body and from 18.5 to 62.5 ml s.s./h for hands in the case of greenhouse cucumbers. The respective inhalation exposure was between 0.17 and 1.0 ml s.s./h. For greenhouse tomatoes, the potential body exposure was in the range of 22.4 to 62.1 ml s.s./h. The hand exposure varied from 5.5 to 6.1 ml s.s./h. The potential inhalation exposure was in the range of 0.33 to 0.43 ml s.s./h. The potential dermal operator exposure is a highly variable parameter, with a variation factor higher than 100% in many cases. One of the most critical factors for the determination of both potential dermal and inhalation exposure is the application pressure. Other field and operational conditions, including unpredictable factors, are also important for the determination of operator exposure levels. The measured potential dermal operator exposure values were above the levels of exposure estimated with mathematical models.     

Optical measurements of aerosol size distributions in Great Smoky Mountains National Park: dry aerosol characterization

Aerosol size distributions were measured during the summertime 1995 Southeastern Aerosol and Visibility Study (SEAVS) in Great Smoky Mountains National Park using an Active Scattering Aerosol Spectrometer (ASASP-X) optical particle counter. We present an overview of the experimental method, our data inversion technique, timelines of the size distribution parameters, and calculations of dry accumulation mode aerosol density and refractive index. Aerosol size distributions were recorded during daylight hours for aerosol in the size range 0.1 < Dp < 2.5 microns. The particle refractive index used for the data inversion was calculated with the partial molar refractive index approach using 12-hr measured aerosol chemical composition. Aerosol accumulation mode volume concentrations ranging from 1 to 26 micron 3 cm-3 were observed, with an average of 7 +/- 5 micron 3 cm-3. The study average dry accumulation mode geometric volume median diameter was 0.27 +/- 0.03 micron, and the mean geometric standard deviation was 1.45 +/- 0.06. Using an internally mixed aerosol model, and assuming chemical homogeneity across the measured particle distribution, an average accumulation mode dry sulfate ion mass scattering efficiency of 3.8 +/- 0.6 m2 g-1 was calculated.     

Methylmercury and total mercury in estuarine organisms from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Guanabara Bay (GB), located in the Rio de Janeiro State, is still a productive estuary on the south-eastern Brazilian coast. It is an ecosystem heavily impacted by organic matter, oil and a number of other toxic compounds, including Hg. The present study aimed to comparatively evaluate the aquatic total mercury (THg) and MeHg contamination, and the ratios of MeHg to THg (% MeHg), in 3 species of marine organisms, Micropogonias furnieri-carnivorous fish (N = 81), Mugil spp.--detritivorous fish (N = 20) and Perna perna--filter-feeding bivalves (N = 190), which are widely consumed by the population. A total of 291 specimens were collected at the bay in different periods between 1988 and 1998. THg concentrations were determined by cold vapour AAS with stannous chloride as a reducing agent. MeHg was extracted by dithizone-benzene and measured by GC-ECD. Analytical quality was checked through certified standards. All organisms presented both low THg and MeHg concentrations and they were below the maximum limit of 1,000 micrograms Hg.kg-1 wet wt. as established for human intake of predatory fish by the new Brazilian legislation. Carnivorous fish showed higher THg and MeHg concentrations, and also % MeHg in muscle tissues, than organisms with other feeding habits and lower trophic levels. The average of THg concentrations in carnivorous fish was 108.9 +/- 58.6 micrograms.kg-1 wet wt. (N = 61) in 1990 and 199.5 +/- 116.2 micrograms.kg-1 wet wt. (N = 20) in 1998, but they presented different total length and body weights. The average THg content in detritivorous fish was 15.4 +/- 5.8 micrograms.kg-1 wet wt., whereas THg concentrations ranged from 4.1 to 53.5 micrograms.kg-1 wet wt. for the molluscs. The THg and MeHg contents of mussel varied according to the sampling point and water quality. MeHg concentration in detritivorous fish was similar to MeHg concentration in molluscs, but there was a significant difference in the MeHg/THg ratio: the carnivorous fish presented higher MeHg percentages (98%) than the detritivorous fish (54%) and the molluscs (33%). Weight-normalised average concentration of THg in carnivorous fish collected in 1990 (0.18 +/- 0.08 microgram.g-1/0.7 kg wet wt.) and in 1998 (0.16 +/- 0.09 microgram.g-1/0.7 kg wet wt.) presented no significant difference (t = 1.34; P < 0.5). In conclusion, the low THg and MeHg concentrations in the organisms from the GB ecosystem, are related to its eutrophic conditions and elevated amounts of suspended matter. In this situation, Hg could be strongly complexed or adsorbed by the particulate, which would dilute the Hg inputs and reduce its residence time in the water column, with a consequent decrease in its availability to organisms.     

Spatial, temporal, and interspecies patterns in fine particulate matter in Texas

The Big Bend Regional Aerosol and Visibility Observational (BRAVO) field study was conducted from July to October 1999 and was followed by several years of modeling and data analyses to examine the causes of haze at Big Bend National Park TX (BBNP). During BRAVO, daily speciated fine (diameter <2.5 microm) particulate concentrations were measured at 37 sites throughout Texas. At the primary receptor site, K-Bar Ranch, there were many additional measurements including a "high-sensitivity" version of the 24-hr fine particulate elemental data. The spatial, temporal, and interspecies patterns in these data are examined here to qualitatively investigate source regions and source types influencing the fine particulate concentrations in Texas with an emphasis on sources of sulfates, the largest contributor to fine mass and light extinction. Peak values of particulate sulfur (S) varied spatially and seasonally. Maximum S was in Northeast Texas during the summer, whereas peak S at BBNP was in the fall. Sulfate acidity at BBNP also varied by month. Sources of Se were evident in Northeast Texas and from the Carbón I and II plants. High S episodes at BBNP during BRAVO had several different trace element characteristics. Carbon concentrations at BBNP during BRAVO were probably mostly urban-related, with arrival from the Houston area likely. The Houston artificial tracer released during the second half of BRAVO was highly correlated with some carbon fractions. There was evidence of the influence of African dust at sites throughout Texas during the summer. Patterns in several trace elements were also examined. Vanadium was associated with air masses from Mexico. Lead concentrations in southern Texas have dropped dramatically over the past several years.