The GaNE programme in a global perspective

This paper provides the background to this special issue, outlining the extent to which the global atmospheric nitrogen cycle has been modified by human activity and outlining the range of effects. The global total emissions of reduced and oxidized nitrogen, amount to 124 Tg N, and exceed those from natural sources (34 Tg N) by almost a factor of four showing the extent to which anthropogenic activity has taken over the global N cycle. Of the 124 Tg N, 70 Tg N is emitted in the oxidized form, largely as NO and 70% of which results directly from anthropogenic activity. The remaining 54 Tg N is emitted as NH₃, (66% anthropogenic). The enhanced nitrogen emissions are associated with a range of local, regional and global issues including, acidification, eutrophication, climate change, human health and tropospheric O₃. The paper also places the Global Nitrogen Enrichment (GaNE) research programme in the UK in a wider perspective.     

Social and Environmental Justice in South African Cities: Including ‘Invisible Stakeholders’ in Environmental Assessment Procedures

In South Africa an intensive reform process to democratize policy, legislation and related institutions in the country commenced after the first democratic elections in 1994. While environmental law reform includes active public participation and equity principles, it is proposed in this paper that ecological modernization dominates current environmental assessment practice. This paper presents a Social Impact Assessment (SIA) of a proposed landfill on the periphery of Durban, where large informal settlements and peri-urban areas exist as a relic of apartheid planning. The methodology of the SIA was explicitly designed within a framework of social justice to include poor and marginalized people, who remain excluded from environmental decision making despite the promise of democratic equality. The study claims to deepen democratic practice by demonstrating that alternative methodologies can be designed to include the interests of ‘invisible stakeholders’ in environmental assessments despite the dominance of ecological modernization in the implementation of environmental law and policy.     

Anxiety in women with low maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein screening results

The purpose of this study was to measure anxiety in pregnant women who had low maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (MSAFP) screening test levels, received genetic counselling and chose to undergo amniocentesis for fetal chromosome analysis. Their anxiety levels were compared with the levels in women undergoing amniocentesis because of advanced maternal age. The results indicate a higher level of anxiety in women with low alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) levels.     

A model to predict concentration enrichment of contaminants on soil adhering to plants and skin

Transfer of soil contaminants into the food chain has long been a concern. However, certain aspects of the pathways involved have not been fully investigated. One is the enrichment of contaminant concentrations through physical processes such as size-sorting of soil particles. Fine particles selected from soil by processes such as adhesion onto plants will have much higher contaminant concentrations than the original soil. A saturation kinetics model of the process of soil adhesion to leaf surfaces was developed. The model helps identify the parameters that are least-well known and need experimental support. The ratio of clay and sand wash-off half times was especially important. With nominal values for the input parameters, estimated enrichments agreed well with observations to date, and ranged from slightly over unity for medium- and fine-textured soils to about tenfold for sandy soils. With a few reasonable assumptions, the model was generalised to apply to other soil adhesion scenarios such as adhesion to skin. The generalised model can be applied with minimal need for setting-specific information.     

Socially cooperative choices: An approach to achieving resource sustainability in the coastal zone

Achieving resource sustainability, particularly in the coastal zone, is complicated by a variety of interdependencies and trade-offs between economic, social, and ecological variables. Although trade-offs between each of these variables are important, this paper emphasizes the social components of resource management. In this regard a distinction is made between individual and cooperative choices. Individual choices frequently are made from a shortterm, self-interested perspective, whereas cooperative choices are made from a long-term, community and resource-sustainability perspective. Typically, when presented with a spectrum of resource management decisions, individuals have a tendency to act in a self-interested manner. Thus, cooperative benefits, such as reduced conflict and improved resource certainty, are not realized. An overview of selected aspects of social dilemma theory suggests that socially cooperative choice outcomes are attainable in coastal zone management by integrating structural and behavioral solutions in resource use decision making. Three barriers to successful integration of structural and behavioral solutions are identified as self-interest, mistrust, and variable perceptions of resource amenities. Examples from coastal zone management indicate that these barriers may be overcome using approaches such as scopereduction, co-management, community education, and local participation. The paper also provides comment on the potential benefits of integrating structural and behavioral solutions in international coastal zone management efforts.     

Choosing how to intervene: Factors affecting the use of process and outcome control in third party dispute resolution

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of three situational variables-time pressure to resolve the dispute, expectation of future relations between disputants and range of impact of the settlement on future conflicts—on a third party's style of managing a dispute. These variables were systematically manipulated in two different case scenarios and presented to respondents in questionnaire form. It was hypothesized that these variables would differentially affect the parties' willingness to exert control over the outcome of the conflict and the process by which the parties attempted to achieve resolution. The predisposition of the respondents to adopt one of four specific third party styles (adversarial intervention, inequisitorial intervention, mediation and providing impetus) was also measured, to determine both overall preference for each style and preference as a function of the independent variables. The results demonstrate that respondents were significantly more likely to employ outcome control strategies when they were under time pressure, when the disputants would not be likely to work together in the future, and when the settlement would have broad impact on the resolution of other disputes. Differences for the two case scenarios were also noted. The disposition to use process control was stronger when the third party did not expect the disputants to interact in the future; the results for time pressure were less clear. Finally, expressed preferences for particular third party styles were consistent with the main effects noted for outcome control, and ambiguous with regard to the effects for process control. Respondents said that they clearly preferred mediation as a third party style, but it is not clear that the parties truly understood mediation versus other forms of dispute management. Implications are drawn for further examination of those factors which predispose managers to use outcome or process control in dispute intervention.     

Estimated hourly personal exposures to ambient and nonambient particulate matter among sensitive populations in Seattle, Washington

Epidemiological studies of particulate matter (PM) routinely use concentrations measured with stationary outdoor monitors as surrogates for personal exposure. Despite the frequently reported poor correlations between ambient concentrations and total personal exposure, the epidemiologic associations between ambient concentrations and health effects depend on the correlation between ambient concentrations and personal exposure to ambient-generated PM. This paper separates personal PM exposure into ambient and nonambient components and estimates the outdoor contribution to personal PM exposures with continuous light scattering data collected from 38 subjects in Seattle, WA. Across all subjects, the average exposure encountered indoors at home was lower than in all other microenvironments. Cooking and being at school were associated with elevated levels of exposure. Previously published estimates of particle infiltration (Finf) were combined with time-location data to estimate an ambient contribution fraction (alpha, mean = 0.66+/-0.21) for each subject. The mean alpha was significantly lower for subjects monitored during the heating season (0.55+/-0.16) than for those monitored during the nonheating season (0.80+/-0.17). Our modeled alpha estimates agreed well with those estimated with the sulfur-tracer method (slope = 1.08; R2 = 0.67). We modeled exposure to ambient and nonambient PM with both continuous light scattering and 24-hr gravimetric data and found good agreement between the two methods. On average, ambient particles accounted for 48% of total personal exposure (range = 21-80%). The personal activity exposure was highly influenced by time spent away from monitored microenvironments. The median hourly longitudinal correlation between central site concentrations and personal exposures was 0.30. Although both alpha and the nonambient sources influence the personal-central relationship, the latter seems to dominate. Thus, total personal exposure may be poorly predicted by stationary outdoor monitors, particularly among persons whose PM exposure is dominated by nonambient exposures, for example, those living in tightly sealed homes, those who cook, and children.     

Effects of acid mist on mature grafts of Sitka spruce. Part I. Frost hardiness and foliar nutrient concentrations

Mature grafts of five clones of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Bong. Sarg.) were exposed to simulated acid mist composed of an equimolar mixture of sulphuric acid and ammonium nitrate at pH 2.5 and pH 5.0 in open-top chambers from May to November 1991. Treatments were applied on consecutive days, four times a week. The pH 2.5 treatment provided an overall dose three times higher than that received by forests in upland areas of Britain. Frost hardiness was assessed in November by freezing detached current year shoots at a range of temperatures and assessing the rate of electrolyte leakage Foliar nutrient concentrations were determined on the same shoots. Acid mist at pH 2.5 significantly reduced frost hardiness in four of the five clones; the temperature causing 50% shoot death (LT50) was increased by 0 to 7 degrees C. The clones varied in their level of hardiness, one clone being exceptionally frost sensitive. The frost hardiness of the frost sensitive clone was found to be less perturbed by acid mist than the hardiness of the more frost resistant clones. Mature grafts showed a smaller reduction in hardiness at an equivalent dose than that found previously with Sitka spruce seedlings. Compared with seedlings, grafts had lower absolute concentrations of foliar sulphur. Exposure to acid mist at pH 2.5 increased %S in current year foliage by <0.05% compared with absolute increases of more than 0.10% in current year foliage of seedlings. We conclude that the effect of acid mist on frost hardiness is likely to be less on mature trees than on seedlings and that the increased frost risk to mature trees of Sitka spruce from occult deposition alone is small.     

Effect of overlying water pH, dissolved oxygen, salinity and sediment disturbances on metal release and sequestration from metal contaminated marine sediments

Experiments were undertaken to examine the key variables affecting metal release and sequestration processes in marine sediments with metal concentrations in sediments reaching up to 86, 240, 700, and 3000 mg kg(-1) (dry weight) for Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn, respectively. The metal release and sequestration rates were affected to a much greater extent by changes in overlying water pH (5.5-8.0) and sediment disturbance (by physical mixing) than by changes in dissolved oxygen concentration (3-8 mg l(-1)) or salinity (15-45 practical salinity units). The physical disturbance of sediments was also found to release metals more rapidly than biological disturbance (bioturbation). The rate of oxidative precipitation of released iron and manganese increased as pH decreased and appeared to greatly influence the sequestration rate of released lead and zinc. Released metals were sequestered less rapidly in waters with lower dissolved oxygen concentrations. Sediments bioturbated by the benthic bivalve Tellina deltoidalis caused metal release from the pore waters and higher concentrations of iron and manganese in overlying waters than non-bioturbated sediments. During 21-day sediment exposures, T. deltoidalis accumulated significantly higher tissue concentrations of cadmium, lead and zinc from the metal contaminated sediments compared to controls. This study suggests that despite the fact that lead and zinc were most likely bound as sulfide phases in deeper sediments, the metals maintain their bioavailability because of the continued cycling between pore waters and surface sediments due to physical mixing and bioturbation.     

Rate-limited mass transfer of octane, decane, and dodecane into nonionic surfactants solutions under laminar flow conditions

A key component to predicting the success of utilizing surfactants to enhance the removal of organic liquids from soil system is quantifying micellar solubilization kinetics. In this study, a flow reactor was employed to investigate the influence of surfactant ethoxylate chain length on the rates of solubilization of octane, decane, and dodecane in micellar solutions of a homologous series of purified dodecyl alcohol ethoxylates. Effluent concentration data were fit using a finite element model utilizing a linear-driving-force model to represent mass transfer at the interface. For flow rates between 0.1 and 2 ml min(-1), mass transfer coefficients ranged from 5 x 10(-8) to 7 x 10(-7)m s(-1) and did not vary in a systematic way with either solute structure or surfactant ethoxylate chain length and were lower than those found in pure water. Correlations developed for the Sherwood number based on diffusion coefficients of surfactant micelles containing organic material (organic-laden micelle) exhibit a velocity dependence similar to that found for systems based on aqueous diffusion. These results suggest that under gentle flowing conditions, the mass transfer is limited by diffusion of the organic-laden micelle. Although these trends are specific for this experimental system, the results demonstrate the importance of selecting the proper diffusion coefficient when modeling surfactant solubilization processes.