Nearly all social spiders spin prey-capture webs, and many of the benefits proposed for sociality in spiders, such as cooperative
prey capture and reduced silk costs, appear to depend on a mutually shared web. The social huntsman spider, Delena cancerides (Sparassidae), forms colonies under bark with no capture web, yet these spiders remain in tightly associated, long-lasting
groups. To investigate how the absence of the web may or may not constrain social evolution in spiders, we observed D. cancerides colonies in the field and laboratory for possible cooperative defense and foraging benefits. We observed spiders’ responses
to three types of potential predators and to prey that were introduced into retreats. We recorded all natural prey capture
over 447 h both inside and outside the retreats of field colonies. The colony’s sole adult female was the primary defender
of the colony and captured most prey introduced into the retreat. She shared prey with younger juveniles about half the time
but never with older subadults. Spiders of all ages individually captured and consumed the vast majority of prey outside the
retreat. Young spiders benefited directly from maternal defense and prey sharing in the retreat. However, active cooperation
was rare, and older spiders gained no foraging benefit by remaining in their natal colony. D. cancerides does not share many of the benefits of group living described in other web-building social spiders. We discuss other reasons
why this species has evolved group living. 相似文献
Altruism in the social Hymenoptera is generally considered to be a feature of females rather than males. A popular explanation
for this is that in the solitary ancestors of today's social species, males provided little brood care. Males might therefore
lack the preadaptations necessary to evolve altruism in social contexts. While anecdotal observations of male contributions
to colony life have been reported, there are few reports of male participation in nest defence. In apoid wasps, there have
been several reports of male nest-guarding behaviour in solitary species, potentially setting the evolutionary stage for similar
behaviours in social lineages. Here, we present evidence of active and effective nest defence in males of the social apoid
wasp Microstigmus nigrophthalmus. Males were observed chasing intruders away from the nest, and the presence of males had a significant effect on nest survival
when females were removed. Males potentially obtained direct benefits through defence, so that defence may not represent male
altruism. However, our results do show that males can perform acts that benefit their colony. 相似文献
Most seabirds live in large colonies. This fact signifies that there is an advantage in living and breeding together. Four explanations are put fore ward for this colonial behaviour, more birds have: (1) a reduced per capita predation of chicks in colonies, (2) a better anti-predator defence, (3) a more efficient foraging in temporally patchy environments and (4) sex ratios that are more likely to be close to one. These factors induce a strong Allee-type density-dependent relation, a positive relation between density and population growth rate at low density. Nevertheless, these Allee effects are generally ignored in seabird population studies. Therefore we study the consequences of introducing Allee-type density-dependent relations in a spatially explicit metapopulation model for the Common Tern (Sterna hirundo). Simulations show that Allee effects might be responsible for a 20-fold decline in the recolonization distances, causing patches and parts of metapopulations to effectively become more isolated. This leads to long recolonization times of empty breeding patches which consequently cause slower metapopulation expansion and recovery. Additionally, we show that the typical early warning signals, that show that a population is near its critical threshold induce by Allee effects, is less pronounced in colonies that are part of a metapopulation. Hence, we offer some simple equations to estimate critical densities and thresholds in a colony. 相似文献
A series of Large Eddy Simulations (LES) are performed to investigate the penetration of starting buoyant jets. The LES code
is first validated by comparing simulation results with existing experimental data for both steady and starting pure jets
and lazy plumes. The centerline decay and the growth rate of the velocity and concentration fields for steady jets and plumes,
as well as the simulated transient penetration rate of a starting pure jet and a starting lazy plume, are found to compare
well with the experiments. After validation, the LES code is used to study the penetration of starting buoyant jets with three
different Reynolds numbers from 2000 to 3000, and with a wide range of buoyancy fluxes from pure jets to lazy plumes. The
penetration rate is found to increase with an increasing buoyancy flux. It is also observed that, in the initial Period of
Flow Development, the two penetrative mechanisms driven by the initial buoyancy and momentum fluxes are uncoupled; therefore
the total penetration rate can be resolved as the linear addition of these two effects. A fitting equation is proposed to
predict the penetration rate by combining the two independent mechanisms. 相似文献
Accurate quantification of stormwater pollutant levels is essential for estimating overall contaminant discharge to receiving waters. Numerous sampling approaches exist that attempt to balance accuracy against the costs associated with the sampling method. This study employs a novel and practical approach of evaluating the accuracy of different stormwater monitoring methodologies using stormflows and constituent concentrations produced by a fully validated continuous simulation watershed model. A major advantage of using a watershed model to simulate pollutant concentrations is that a large number of storms representing a broad range of conditions can be applied in testing the various sampling approaches. Seventy-eight distinct methodologies were evaluated by "virtual samplings" of 166 simulated storms of varying size, intensity and duration, representing 14 years of storms in Ballona Creek near Los Angeles, California. The 78 methods can be grouped into four general strategies: volume-paced compositing, time-paced compositing, pollutograph sampling, and microsampling. The performances of each sampling strategy was evaluated by comparing the (1) median relative error between the virtually sampled and the true modeled event mean concentration (EMC) of each storm (accuracy), (2) median absolute deviation about the median or "MAD" of the relative error or (precision), and (3) the percentage of storms where sampling methods were within 10% of the true EMC (combined measures of accuracy and precision). Finally, costs associated with site setup, sampling, and laboratory analysis were estimated for each method. Pollutograph sampling consistently outperformed the other three methods both in terms of accuracy and precision, but was the most costly method evaluated. Time-paced sampling consistently underestimated while volume-paced sampling over estimated the storm EMCs. Microsampling performance approached that of pollutograph sampling at a substantial cost savings. The most efficient method for routine stormwater monitoring in terms of a balance between performance and cost was volume-paced microsampling, with variable sample pacing to ensure that the entirety of the storm was captured. Pollutograph sampling is recommended if the data are to be used for detailed analysis of runoff dynamics. 相似文献
Eight species of desert vegetation and associated soils were collected from the Nevada National Security Site (N2S2) and analyzed for 238Pu and 239 + 240Pu concentrations. Amongst the plant species sampled were: atmospheric elemental accumulators (moss and lichen), the very slow growing, long-lived creosote bush and the rapidly growing, short-lived cheatgrass brome. The diversity of growth strategies provided insight into the geochemical behavior and bio-availability of Pu at the N2S2. The highest concentrations of Pu were measured in the onion moss (24.27 Bq kg-1 238Pu and 52.78 Bq kg-1 239 + 240Pu) followed by the rimmed navel lichen (8.18 Bq kg-1 and 18.4 Bq kg-1 respectively), pointing to the importance of eolian transport of Pu. Brome and desert globemallow accumulated between 3 and 9 times higher concentrations of Pu than creosote and sage brush species. These results support the importance of species specific elemental accumulation strategies rather than exposure duration as the dominant variable influencing Pu concentrations in these plants. Total vegetation elemental concentrations of Ce, Fe, Al, Sm and others were also analyzed. Strong correlations were observed between Fe and Pu. This supports the conclusion that Pu was accumulated as a consequence of the active accumulation of Fe and other plant required nutrients. Cerium and Pu are considered to be chemical analogs. Strong correlations observed in plants support the conclusion that these elements displayed similar geochemical behavior in the environment as it related to the biochemical uptake process of vegetation. Soils were also sampled in association with vegetation samples. This allowed for the calculation of a concentration ratio (CR). The CR values for Pu in plants were highly influenced by the heterogeneity of Pu distribution among sites. Results from the naturally occurring elements of concern were more evenly distributed between sample sites. This allowed for the development of a pattern of plant species that accumulated Ce, Sm, Fe and Al. The highest accumulators of these elements were onion moss, lichen flowed by brome. The lowest accumulators were creosote bush and fourwing saltbush. This ranked order corresponds to plant accumulations of Pu. 相似文献
Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Tourism development is recognised as an essential tool in promoting economic growth; however, it may also contribute to environmental degradation.... 相似文献
Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Globally, attention has been paid to policies that promote the manufacturing, distribution, and usage of ‘cleaner stoves’ to minimise the... 相似文献
Oily sludge contains high concentrations of total petroleum hydrocarbons and heavy metals, which seriously impact the environment and human health. How to dispose of and use the oily sludge has attracted an increasing amount of attention. This study introduces harmless and resource-based oily sludge treatment technologies. It summarizes the technologies from various aspects, such as the process principle, influencing factors, advantages, and disadvantages, and analyzes and summarizes the status quo of the development of the technologies. In comparison, the direction of processing technology development is discussed to provide reference for processing technology improvements, optimization, and efficiency improvements.