Constraints on group size in primates and carnivores: population density and day-range as assays of exploitation competition

Summary We hypothesise that foraging group size (FGS) and population group size (PGS) in primates and carnivores are related to quantifiable variables indexing the intensity of exploitative competition. Group size is predicted to increase with both food density and travel capabilities, as estimated by the constraint-free day-range (DR_s), i.e. the day-range of a solitary individual uninfluenced by competition from conspecifics. We test this exploitation competition hypothesis among primates and carnivores, using data on populations, species and genera. Food density was indexed by population density. Where DR_s could be estimated by regression it was found to be correlated with observed day-range (DR_m). DR_s was therefore indexed by DR_m in all species. Population density and DR_m were associated with each other, but in a multiple regression each variable contributed independently to explaining variation in group size. PGS was predicted better than FGS, but regressions involving either measure of group size were significant in all analyses. The multiple regression analyses were validated by the method of linear contrasts, which accounts for possible lack of independence among taxa. We conclude that species differences in group size are influenced by both food density and DR_s. This suggests that variation in the intensity of exploitation competition is partly responsible for differences in group size.Correspondence to: R.W. Wrangham     

Sex-biased lactational duration in a human population and its reproductive costs

Summary We tested the proposition that among humans (1) differences in lactational duration result in differences in costs of reproduction even under rich nutritional conditions; and (2) elimination of factors postulated to favor male-biased parental care will be reflected in elimination or reversal of sex-biased care. To do so, we examined the relationship between lactational duration and fertility among Hutterites, a communal-living human population in which the levels of nutritional resources and fertility are high, breast-feeding is the norm, contraceptive use is limited and the collective social and economic system results in low resource variance among individuals. We demonstrate that even under good nutritional conditions, duration of nursing was a significant predictor of the length of time to next pregnancy and that nursing continued to suppress fertility after the resumption of menses. Moreover, we find that daughters were nursed longer than sons, leading to a longer interval to next pregnancy. We examine this uncommon, but not unique, finding of female-biased human parental care in the light of Hutterite social structure, and we explore the consistency of this finding with the most applicable models of parental investment. Correspondence to: S.W. Margulis     

Threshold and dose response estimation using the “filter model”

The “filter model” has been developed to explain the biologic effects of radiation and chemicals. We have examined nearly 300 sets of dose response data, of which 50 are presented here. Responses (induced by radiation and chemicals) which have been examined include in vitro survival studies on animal and plant tissues, induction of cellular aberrations and time to tumor or death. Similar data from in vivo studies has also been examined. All of the data appear to fit the model R = a lnD + b(lnD)² + c, where R is the response, a and b are parameters fitted by regression to a particular set of data, and c is the response at zero (or lowest) dose. By writing this model in exponential form, it can be seen that the response R results from multistage filtering (by net amounts a and b) of the initial dose, D. The threshold is obtained from this model as the point, $\text{D}\text{?}{}_{\mathrm{T}}$, at which the second derivative becomes zero. This is given by $\text{D}\text{?}{}_{\mathrm{T}}\text{=}\text{exp}\text{(1 ?}\text{a}\text{2b}\text{)}$ when a and b are oppositelt signed.     

A note on the allocation of investment

It is shown by example that the results obtained by Gruver [11 concerning specialization of investment in either directly productive or pollution control capital arise because of an implicit linearity assumption on the underlying technology. Utilizing a strictly concave “eighth sphere” technology, results are obtained which imply joint investment in the two types of capital except in “rare” instances. The results indicate the need for incorporating more general technologies into the analysis of such problems.     

International competitive displacement from environmental control The quantitative gains from methodological refinement

This paper demonstrates empirically the gain from adopting more general equilibrium approaches in projecting the effects on domestic output and international trade of environmental controls. The suggested models include a partial equilibrium case where all industries are treated independently, an intermediate case incorporating effects in supplying industries, and general equilibrium formulations based on alternative macroeconomic conditions. U. S. data is used to evaluate these models. Under both pollutor pays and subsidy financing schemes, moving from the simplest case to the intermediate model results in quite different industry projections. Including macroeconomic factors appears particularly important in the classical setting.     

Counter-disaster training in developing countries

This paper discusses both the need for training within a wider context of community disaster preparedness and the major alternatives in methods of training. Emphasis is placed on the importance of compatibility between the resources within a given country and appropriate training programmes.