Fundamentals of Successful Monitoring,Reporting, and Verification under a Cap-and-Trade Program

Abstract

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) developed and implemented the Acid Rain Program (ARP), and NO_x Budget Trading Programs (NBTP) using several fundamental monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) elements: (1) compliance assurance through incentives and automatic penalties; (2) strong quality assurance (QA); (3) collaborative approach with a petition process; (4) standardized electronic reporting; (5) compliance flexibility for low-emitting sources; (6) complete emissions data record required; (7) centralized administration; (8) level playing field; (9) publicly available data; (10) performance-based approach; and (11) reducing conflicts of interest. Each of these elements is discussed in the context of the authors’ experience under two U.S. cap-and-trade programs and their potential application to other capand-trade programs.

The U.S. Office of Management and Budget found that the Acid Rain Program has accounted for the largest quantified human health benefits of any federal regulatory program implemented in the last 10 yr, with annual benefits exceeding costs by >40 to 1. The authors believe that the elements described in this paper greatly contributed to this success. EPA has used the ARP fundamental elements as a model for other cap-and-trade programs, including the NBTP, which went into effect in 2003, and the recently published Clean Air Interstate Rule and Clean Air Mercury Rule. The authors believe that using these fundamental elements to develop and implement the MRV portion of their cap-and-trade programs has resulted in public confidence in the programs, highly accurate and complete emissions data, and a high compliance rate (>99% overall).     

Aerosol Filtration by Sorbent Beds

Fixed beds of sorbent media are used for the evaluation of poiynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) present in air. Twostage sampling and separate extraction and analyses of PAH associated with aerosol particles and those present in the vapor state are usually performed. The ability of commonly used sorbents to retain particulate matter introduces a potential for reducing the time and cost of PAH evaluation procedures.

The filtration efficiency of three sorbent media, Florisil, XAD-2, and polyurethanefoam (PUF), for particles in 0.1 to 1 µm size range was studied using airflow rates from 4 to 2501 /mm through a PS 1 sorbent cartridge. Theoretical considerations were used to identify the principal filtration mechanisms and to assess the predictability of the aerosol filtration performance of sorbent filters. The results of this study indicate XAD-2 to be an efficient filtration medium owing to the electrostatic enhancement of capturing and retaining aerosol particles.

As a result of theoretical considerations, Brownian diffusion and inertial deposition were found to be major filtration mechanisms accompanied by electrostatic effects. While the efficiency of the diffusional deposition mechanism was reasonably well predicted with available theories, modeling of submicron particle impaction at higher fluid velocities appeared to be inadequate. Further developments are suggested to improve our understanding of filtration phenomena in sorbent beds under high flow rate conditions.     

Application of Forensic Techniques for Age Dating and Source Identification in Environmental Litigation

A multitude of forensic techniques are available for age dating and source identification, including corrosion models for underground storage tanks, the commercial availability of a compound, chemical associations with discrete types of manufacturing processes, chemical profiling, proprietary additives, stable isotope analysis, degradation models, biomarkers and contaminant transport models. The selection and use of these techniques in environmental litigation must be thoroughly understood and applied to be effective as forensic evidence. When introduced as scientific evidence, the governing assumptions and quality of the data are critically evaluated and frequently successfully challenged. The purpose of this paper is to present an overview of commonly used environmental forensic techniques and their possible applications so that a user can decide which technique or combination of methods is most appropriate for their case.     

Watershed Regressions for Pesticides (warp) Models for Predicting Atrazine Concentrations in Corn Belt Streams1

Stone, Wesley W. and Robert J. Gilliom, 2012. Watershed Regressions for Pesticides (WARP) Models for Predicting Atrazine Concentrations in Corn Belt Streams. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 48(5): 970‐986. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752‐1688.2012.00661.x Abstract: Watershed Regressions for Pesticides (WARP) models, previously developed for atrazine at the national scale, are improved for application to the United States (U.S.) Corn Belt region by developing region‐specific models that include watershed characteristics that are influential in predicting atrazine concentration statistics within the Corn Belt. WARP models for the Corn Belt (WARP‐CB) were developed for annual maximum moving‐average (14‐, 21‐, 30‐, 60‐, and 90‐day durations) and annual 95th‐percentile atrazine concentrations in streams of the Corn Belt region. The WARP‐CB models accounted for 53 to 62% of the variability in the various concentration statistics among the model‐development sites. Model predictions were within a factor of 5 of the observed concentration statistic for over 90% of the model‐development sites. The WARP‐CB residuals and uncertainty are lower than those of the National WARP model for the same sites. Although atrazine‐use intensity is the most important explanatory variable in the National WARP models, it is not a significant variable in the WARP‐CB models. The WARP‐CB models provide improved predictions for Corn Belt streams draining watersheds with atrazine‐use intensities of 17 kg/km² of watershed area or greater.     

Genetic engineering of cyanobacteria to enhance biohydrogen production from sunlight and water

To mitigate global warming caused by burning fossil fuels, a renewable energy source available in large quantity is urgently required. We are proposing large-scale photobiological H(2) production by mariculture-raised cyanobacteria where the microbes capture part of the huge amount of solar energy received on earth's surface and use water as the source of electrons to reduce protons. The H(2) production system is based on photosynthetic and nitrogenase activities of cyanobacteria, using uptake hydrogenase mutants that can accumulate H(2) for extended periods even in the presence of evolved O(2). This review summarizes our efforts to improve the rate of photobiological H(2) production through genetic engineering. The challenges yet to be overcome to further increase the conversion efficiency of solar energy to H(2) also are discussed.     

Bio-Ethanol Production from Non-Food Parts of Cassava (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Manihot esculenta</Emphasis> Crantz)

Global climate issues and a looming energy crisis put agriculture under pressure in Sub-Saharan Africa. Climate adaptation measures must entail sustainable development benefits, and growing crops for food as well as energy may be a solution, removing people from hunger and poverty without compromising the environment. The present study investigated the feasibility of using non-food parts of cassava for energy production and the promising results revealed that at least 28% of peels and stems comprise dry matter, and 10 g feedstock yields >8.5 g sugar, which in turn produced >60% ethanol, with pH ≈ 2.85, 74-84% light transmittance and a conductivity of 368 mV, indicating a potential use of cassava feedstock for ethanol production. Thus, harnessing cassava for food as well as ethanol production is deemed feasible. Such a system would, however, require supportive policies to acquire a balance between food security and fuel.     

Climate Change and Population Growth in Timor Leste: Implications for Food Security

The climate in Timor Leste (East Timor) is predicted to become about 1.5 °C warmer and about 10 % wetter on average by 2050. By the same year, the population is expected to triple from 1 to 2.5–3 million. This article maps the predicted changes in temperature and rainfall and reviews the implications of climate change and population growth on agricultural systems. Improved cultivars of maize, rice, cassava, sweet potato and peanuts with high yield performance have been introduced, but these will need to be augmented in the future with better adapted cultivars and new crops, such as food and fodder legumes and new management practices. The requirements for fertilizers to boost yields and terracing and/or contour hedgerows to prevent soil erosion of steeply sloping terrain are discussed. Contour hedges can also be used for fodder for improved animal production to provide protein to reduce malnutrition.     

The exposition of a calcareous Mediterranean soil to toxic concentrations of Cr, Cd and Pb produces changes in the microbiota mainly related to differential metal bioavailability

The involvement of the bacterial community of an agricultural Mediterranean calcareous soil in relation to several heavy metals has been studied in microcosms under controlled laboratory conditions. Soil samples were artificially polluted with Cr(VI), Cd(II) and Pb(II) at concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 5000 mg kg⁻¹ and incubated along 28 d. The lowest concentrations with significant effects in soil respirometry were 10 mg kg⁻¹ Cr and 1000 mg kg⁻¹ Cd and Pb. However, only treatments showing more than 40% inhibition of respirometric activity led to significant changes in bacterial composition, as indicated by PCR-DGGE analyses. Presumable Cr- and Cd-resistant bacteria were detected in polluted microcosms, but development of the microbiota was severely impaired at the highest amendments of both metals. Results also showed that bioavailability is an important factor determining the impact of the heavy metals assayed, and even an inverted potential toxicity ranking could be achieved if their soluble fraction is considered instead of the total concentration. Moreover, multiresistant bacteria were isolated from Cr-polluted soil microcosms, some of them showing the capacity to reduce Cr(VI) concentrations between 26% and 84% of the initial value. Potentially useful strains for bioremediation were related to Arthrobacter crystallopoietes, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and several species of Bacillus.