GLYPHOSATE, OTHER HERBICIDES, AND TRANSFORMATION PRODUCTS IN MIDWESTERN STREAMS, 20021

ABSTRACT: The use of glyphosate has increased rapidly, and there is limited understanding of its environmental fate. The objective of this study was to document the occurrence of glyphosate and the transformation product aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) in Midwestern streams and to compare their occurrence with that of more commonly measured herbicides such as acetochlor, atrazine, and metolachlor. Water samples were collected at sites on 51 streams in nine Midwestern states in 2002 during three runoff events: after the application of pre-emergence herbicides, after the application of post-emergence herbicides, and during harvest season. All samples were analyzed for glyphosate and 20 other herbicides using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry or high performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. The frequency of glyphosate and AMPA detection, range of concentrations in runoff samples, and ratios of AMPA to glyphosate concentrations did not vary throughout the growing season as substantially as for other herbicides like atrazine, probably because of different seasonal use patterns. Glyphosate was detected at or above 0.1 μg/1 in 35 percent of pre-emergence, 40 percent of post-emergence, and 31 percent of harvest season samples, with a maximum concentration of 8.7 μg/1. AMPA was detected at or above 0.1 μg/1 in 53 percent of pre-emergence, 83 percent of post-emergence, and 73 percent of harvest season samples, with a maximum concentration of 3.6 μg/1. Glyphosate was not detected at a concentration at or above the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's maximum contamination level (MCL) of 700 μg/1 in any sample. Atrazine was detected at or above 0.1 μg/1 in 94 percent of pre-emergence, 96 percent of post-emergence, and 57 percent of harvest season samples, with a maximum concentration of 55 μg/1. Atrazine was detected at or above its MCL (3 μg/1) in 57 percent of pre-emergence and 33 percent of post-emergence samples.     

OCCURRENCE OF TOTAL DISSOLVED PHOSPHORUS IN UNCONSOLIDATED AQUIFERS AND AQUITARDS IN IOWA1

ABSTRACT: Seven sets of ground water samples from 103 observation wells were analyzed for total dissolved phosphorus (TDP) in four areas and five materials including loess and loess derived alluvium in the Deep Loess Hills of western Iowa, outwash and fractured till adjacent to Clear Lake in north central Iowa, fractured till in central Iowa, and a sand and gravel aquifer in northwest Iowa. Land use in ground water recharge zones in all four areas is dominated by crop or animal production or both. Concentrations of TDP exceeding the minimum laboratory detection limit of 20 μg/l as P were found in all areas and in all materials sampled. Samples from the outwash deposits associated with Clear Lake contained significantly larger concentrations than all other areas and materials with a median of 160 μg/l. Water from fractured till in three areas produced the smallest range of concentrations with a median of 40 μg/l. The mean value of TDP in all sample sets exceeded 50 μg/l, an important ecological threshold that causes increased productivity in lakes and perennial streams and one being considered as a surface water nutrient standard by regulatory agencies. These results clearly show that ground water in essentially all near‐surface aquifers and aquitards discharging to Iowa's streams and lakes is capable of sustaining P concentrations of 50 to 100 μg/l in streams, lakes, and reservoirs. Consequently, even if point discharges and sediment sources of P are substantially reduced, ground‐water discharge to surface water may exceed critical thresholds under most conditions.     

Muscle tetanus and loading condition effects on the elastic and viscous characteristics of the thorax

Thoracic deformation under an applied load is an established indicator of injury risk, but the force required to achieve an injurious level of deformation currently is not understood adequately. This article evaluates how two potentially important factors, loading condition and muscle tensing, affect the structural response of the dynamically loaded thorax. Structural models of two human cadaver thoraxes and two porcine thoraxes were used to quantify the effects. The human cadavers, which represent anthropometric extremes, were subjected to anterior loading from (1) a 5.1-cm-wide belt oriented diagonally (i.e., seatbelt-like loading), (2) a 15.2-cm-diameter rigid hub, and (3) a 20.3-cm-wide belt oriented laterally (i.e., a distributed load). A structural model having the mathematical formulation of a quasilinear viscoelastic material model was used to model the elastic and viscous response, with ramp-hold tests used to determine the model coefficients. The effect of thoracic musculature was assessed using similar ramp-hold tests on the porcine subjects, each with and without forced muscle contraction. Even maximally contracted thoracic musculature is shown to have a minimal effect on the response, with similar elastic and viscous characteristics exhibited by each subject regardless of muscle tone. The elastic response is shown to be approximately a factor of three stiffer for diagonal belt loading and for this distributed loading condition than for the hub loading, indicating that the response is influenced most by the particular anatomical structures that are engaged and, secondarily, by the area of load application. Specifically, shoulder involvement is shown to have a strong influence. The force relaxation is found to be pronounced, but insensitive to the loading condition, with long-time force relaxation coefficients (G( infinity )) in the range of 0.1 to 0.3. The findings of this study provide restraint-specific guidelines for the force-deflection characteristics of both physical and computational thoracic models.     

Targeted sampling protocol as prelude to bacterial source tracking with Enterococcus faecalis

Recent studies suggest that host origin databases for bacterial source tracking (BST) must contain a large number of isolates because bacterial subspecies change with geography and time. A new targeted sampling protocol was developed as a prelude to BST to minimize these changes. The research was conducted on the Sapelo River, a tidal river on the Georgia coast. A general sampling of the river showed fecal enterococcal numbers ranging from <10 (below the limit of detection) to 990 colony-forming units (CFU) per 100 mL. Locations with high enterococcal numbers were combined with local knowledge to determine targeted sampling sites. Fecal enterococcal numbers around one site ranged from <10 to 24,000 CFU per 100 mL. Bacterial source tracking was conducted to determine if a wastewater treatment facility at the site was responsible for this contamination. The fecal indicator bacterium was Enterococcus faecalis. Ribotyping, automated with a RiboPrinter (DuPont Qualicon, Wilmington, DE), was the BST method. Thirty-seven ribotypes were observed among 83 Ent. faecalis isolates obtained from the Sapelo River and the wastewater lagoon. Sixteen ribotypes were associated with either the river or the lagoon, and only five ribotypes (14%) were shared. Nevertheless, these five ribotypes represented 39 of the 83 Ent. faecalis isolates, almost a majority (47%). These results suggest that the fecal contamination in the river came from the wastewater treatment facility. As a prelude to BST, targeted sampling minimized subspecies changes with geography and time, and eliminated the need for a permanent host origin database by restricting BST to a small geographic area and requiring sampling to be completed in one day.     

Earthworm additions affect leachate production and nitrogen losses in typical midwestern agroecosystems

Earthworms affect soil structure and the movement of agrochemicals. Yet, there have been few field-scale studies that quantify the effect of earthworms on dissolved nitrogen fluxes in agroecosystems. We investigated the influence of semi-annual earthworm additions on leachate production and quality in different row crop agroecosystems. Chisel-till corn (Zea mays L.)-soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] rotation (CT) and ridge-till corn-soybean-wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) rotation (RT) plots were arranged in a complete randomized block design (n = 3) with earthworm treatments (addition and ambient) as subplots where zero-tension lysimeters were placed 45 cm below ground. We assessed earthworm populations semi-annually and collected leachate biweekly over a three-year period and determined leachate volume and concentrations of total inorganic nitrogen (TIN) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON). Abundance of deep-burrowing earthworms was increased in addition treatments over ambient and for both agroecosystems. Leachate loss was similar among agroecosystems, but earthworm additions increased leachate production in the range of 4.5 to 45.2% above ambient in CT cropping. Although leachate TIN and DON concentrations were generally similar between agroecosystems or earthworm treatments, transport of TIN was significantly increased in addition treatments over ambient in CT cropping due to increased leachate volume. Losses of total nitrogen in leachate loadings were up to approximately 10% of agroecosystem N inputs. The coincidence of (i) soluble N production and availability and (ii) preferential leaching pathways formed by deep-burrowing earthworms thereby increased N losses from the CT agroecosystem at the 45-cm depth. Processing of N compounds and transport in soil water from RT cropping were more affected by management phase and largely independent of earthworm activity.     

Evidence for differential selection and potential adaptive evolution in the worker caste of an inquiline social parasite

Social parasites exploit the socially managed resources of social insect colonies in order to maximise their own fitness. The inquilines are among the most specialised social parasites, because they are dependent on being fully integrated into their host's colony throughout their lives. They are usually relatives of their host and so share ancestral characteristics (Emery's rule). Closely related inquiline-host combinations offer a rare opportunity to study trade-offs in natural selection. This is because ancestral adaptations to a free-living state (e.g. the production of a worker caste) become redundant and may be replaced by novel, parasitic traits as the inquiline becomes more specialised. The dynamics of such processes are, however, unknown as virtually all extant inquiline social parasites have completely lost their worker caste. An exception is Acromyrmex insinuator, an incipient permanent social parasite of the leaf-cutting ant Acromyrmex echinatior. In the present study, we document the size distribution of parasite and host workers and infer how selection has acted on A. insinuator to reduce, but not eliminate, its investment in a worker caste. We show that the antibiotic producing metapleural glands of these parasite workers are significantly smaller than in their host counterparts and we deduce that the metapleural gland size in the host represents the ancestral state. We further show experimentally that social parasite workers are more vulnerable to the general insect pathogenic fungus Metarhizium than are host workers. Our findings suggest that costly disease resistance mechanisms are likely to have been lost early in inquiline evolution, possibly because active selection for maintaining these traits became less when parasite workers had evolved the ability to exploit the collective immune system of their host societies.     

CHANNEL CHANGES DOWNSTREAM FROM A DAM1

ABSTRACT: A flood-control dam was completed during 1979 on Bear Creek, a small tributary stream to the South Platte River in the Denver, Colorado, area. Before and after dam closure, repetitive surveys between 1977 and 1992 at five cross sections downstream of the dam documented changes in channel morphology. During this 15-year period, channel width increased slightly, but channel depth increased by more than 40 percent. Within the study reach, stream gradient decreased and median bed material sizes coarsened from sand in the pools and fine gravel on the rime to a median coarse gravel throughout the reach. The most striking visual change was from a sparse growth of streamside grasses to a dense growth of riparian woody vegetation.     

LIMITING NUTRIENT DETERMINATION IN LOTIC ECOSYSTEMS USING A QUANTITATIVE NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT PERIPHYTOMETER1

ABSTRACT: The decline of water quality in United States’ lotic ecosystems (streams and rivers) has been linked to nonpoint source nutrient loading (U.S. EPA, 1990). Determining limiting nutrients in streams is difficult due to the variable nature of lotic ecosystems. We developed a quantitative passive diffusion periphyton nutrient enrichment system, called the Matlock Periphytometer, to measure the response of attached algae (periphyton) to nutrient enrichment. The system is simple to build and provides quantitative nutrient enrichment of a surface for periphytic growth. The periphyton grow on a glass fiber filter, which allows complete recovery of periphyton for chlorophyll a analysis. A 14-kilodalton dialysis membrane was used as a biofilter to prevent bacterial and algal contamination of the nutrient solution. We determined the rates of diffusion of nitrogen and phosphorus ions across the Matlock Periphytometer's dialysis membrane and glass fiber filter over a 21-day period (42 and 22 μg/cm²/hr, respectively). We used the Matlock Periphytometer to determine the limiting nutrient in a woodland stream. Six replicates each of a control, nitrogen, and phosphorus treatment were placed in the stream for 14 days. The results indicated that phosphorus was the limiting nutrient in the stream for the period and location sampled.