Quality assurance and quality control in monitoring programs

There are three general characteristics of the data to be collected in a monitoring program that should be met in order to maximize the use and value of the data: the data quality should be known, the data type and quality should be consistent and comparable, and the data should be available and accessible. Potential problems with each of these characteristics are addressed effectively by quality assurance and quality control. One of the most important aspects of quality assurance in a monitoring program is the development of a quality assurance plan, which should identify clearly the quality of the data needed and describe in detail the planned actions to provide confidence that the program will meet its stated objectives.Quality control data, which allow for the quality and suitability of the environmental data to be evaluated and ascertained, should be collected and utilized as an integral part of the QA effort associated with a monitoring program.     

Environmental impact assessment: The work of the OECD

This report describes the work of an international group that is supported in part by the Dutch Ministry for Environment and is chaired by Frans Evers, the Ministry's Deputy Director-General for Environmental Protection.     

Genecological variation corresponding to Forest Ecosystem Classification vegetation and soil types for jack pine and black spruce from northwestern Ontario

A preliminary study was undertaken to reveal ecotypic differentiation in jack pine and black spruce corresponding to ecological land classification groups. Seed sources of jack pine (64) and black spruce (68) from northwestern Ontario were classified according to Vegetation Types (V-Types) and Soil Types (S-Types) defined by the Forest Ecosystem Classification (FEC) developed by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry Canada for northwestern Ontario. Two short-term common garden field trials and a greenhouse trial were established for each species. Significant differences were present among ecological groupings of seed sources for both species. These differences were expressed according to V-Types and S-Types based on first, second, and third year heights as well as needle flushing dates for jack pine and second year growth increments for black spruce. Rank differences among the groups based on FEC V-Types and S-Types were generally consistent for each of the two species although certain groups showed rank reversals at the two field trials. Apparently, selection pressures corresponding to different FEC V-Types and S-Types have resulted in a detectable pattern of adaptive variation for both jack pine and black spruce in northwestern Ontario. However, the management implications for these two species are uncertain since additional tests are required to verify these results.     

The role of interactions in long‐term population cycles

Changes in population size and structure depend not only on the internal dynamics of populations, but also on environmental coupling, human exploitation, and interaction with other species. Some of these factors are cyclic and predictable, while others are random. In some cases the effect of interactions is to destabilise the system and produce catastrophic changes, which are manifested as discontinuities. This paper reviews several models of marine populations which generate long‐term population changes, typically much longer than the generation time of the species involved. The output of these models is realistic and agrees with existing data, but in the absence of adequate time series it is not always possible to test or validate such models in a rigorous statistical sense. The paper concludes with a discussion of the role of such models in our understanding of long‐term changes in marine populations, and the practical implications of not always being able either to validate or falsify models needed for effective decisionmaking.     

Large particles are responsible for elevated bacterial marker levels in school air upon occupation

Muramic acid (Mur) is found in bacterial peptidoglycan (PG) whereas 3-hydroxy fatty acids (3-OH FAs) are found in Gram-negative bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Thus Mur and 3-OH FAs serve as markers to assess bacterial levels in indoor air. An initial survey, in a school, demonstrated that the levels of dust, PG and LPS (pmol m(-3)) were each much higher in occupied rooms than in the same rooms when unoccupied. In each instance, the Mur content of dust was increased and the hydroxy fatty acid distribution changed similarly suggesting an alteration in the bacterial population. Here, findings are compared with results from two additional schools. Follow-up aerosol monitoring by particle size was also performed for the first time for all 3 schools. The particle size distribution was shown to be quite different in occupied versus unoccupied schoolrooms. Within individual classrooms, concentrations of airborne particles [greater-than-or-equal]0.8 [micro sign]m in diameter, and CO(2) were correlated. This suggests that the increased levels of larger particles are responsible for elevation of bacterial markers during occupation. Release of culturable and non-culturable bacteria or bacterial aggregates from children (e.g. from flaking skin) might explain this phenomenon.     

A REVIEW OF APPLICATION ISSUES OF THE METROPOLITAN WATER DISTRICT-MAIN WATER FORECASTING SYSTEM1

ABSTRACT: This paper reviews the processes that occurred during an application of the Metropolitan Water District (MWD)-MAIN water use forecasting system for the City of Salinas, California. The review includes an analysis of sources of available data, methods for estimating input data, calibration, and verification of the MWD-MAIN System, and an evaluation of the reliability of system output. We found that inexperienced users can have difficulty understanding the level of skill, knowledge, and amount of data that are required to produce reliable forecasts. Some of the issues associated with application of the MWD-MAIN System include the following:

• ? All input data needed for accurate forecasts simply are not available for many cities and towns.
• ? The data requirements are more extensive than many users anticipate.
• ? Substantial requirements for manipulation of input data produces opportunity for error that creates major time demands in troubleshooting.
• ? Calibration and verification for specific uses can be substantially more difficult than is readily apparent from the guidance manual.
• ? Independent validity checks need to be done to validate system output.
• ? If specified calibrating procedures do not produce reasonable results, reestimating slope coefficients is an option, but this requires resources and expertise that can easily exceed the limits of most users.

These are problems typical of most complex models. Reviews such as this can help users to appreciate the level of data required, and to use the MWD-MAIN System in a more effective and efficient manner.     

Book reviews

Common Property Economics: A General Theory and Land Use Applications

Glenn G. Stevenson

Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992, XIV + 256pp., £35

Controversial Issues in Environmental Policy: Science vs Economics vs Politics

Kent E. Portney

London, Sage, 1992, 181 pp. £22.00 hb., £10.95 pb.

Economics of Natural Resources and the Environment

E. Kula

London, Chapman & Hall, 1992, 287 pp., £40

Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming: Mitigation, Adaptation and the Science Base

Committee on Science, Engineering and Public Policy (US), Panel on Policy

Implications of Greenhouse Warming

Washington, DC, National Academy Press, 1992, xxiii + 918 pp., $89.95 hb.

Contemporary Rural Systems in Transition, Volume 1: Agriculture and Environment, Volume 2: Economy and Society

I. Bowler, C. Bryant & M.Nellis (Eds)

Wallingford, CAB International, 1992, 288 pp. + 336 pp., £35 + £40 (2 vols. £70) hb.

Third World Cities: Problems, Policies and Prospects

John Kasarda & Allan Parnell (Eds) London, Sage, 1993, 310 pp., £19.50 pb.

Pricing the European Environment

Stale Navrud (Ed)

Oxford, Oxford University Press/Scandinavian University Press, 1992, 288 pp., £30.00 hb.     

Carbon-14, tree rings,and urban air pollution

Differences in natural ¹⁴C content of rings from trees from urban and rural locations have been compared on a year by year basis. The differences as a fraction of the urban tree's radioactivity reflect the local excess ¹⁴C-free carbon dioxide from fossil fuel combustion in the urban environment. New York City, Boston, and Washington, D.C., show different degrees of excess carbon dioxide. New York City averages about 6% excess carbon dioxide between 1950 and 1970. From this is infered an average carbon monoxide concentration during this period of 5 ppm.     

FECAL COLIFORM SOURCE ASSESSMENT IN A SMALL,MIXED LAND USE WATERSHED1

ABSTRACT: This study presents the results of fecal coliform (FC) sampling in the Rawls Creek, South Carolina, watershed during 1999 and 2000. The work was undertaken because the watershed is listed on the 303(d) list for South Carolina due to FC excursions. The watershed is 43.8 percent residential, 35 percent forest, 5.7 percent mixed urban, 4.9 percent commercial, and 4.8 percent agriculture. Samples were taken at 15 stations during eight field trips divided into two phases to characterize FC inputs from subbasins and to integrate results from upstream sampling. FC concentrations ranged from 135 to 730 colonies/100 ml. Results suggest that retention ponds in the area are a significant factor in attenuation of FC concentrations. Catchments with the largest contiguous impervious areas are the greatest source of FC. The highest concentrations of FC were observed at stations just downstream from a large detention basin that intercepts storm runoff from a large commercial area. Further analysis of the design and performance of that structure is suggested. The Koon Branch tributary is less than 20 percent of the land area in the watershed but may contribute 40 percent of the fecal loading. The results of this study confirm the importance of site assessments to aid understanding of nonpoint source pollution in complex watersheds.     

INTEGRATING LANDSCAPE ASSESSMENT AND HYDROLOGIC MODELING FOR LAND COVER CHANGE ANALYSIS1

ABSTRACT: Significant land cover changes have occurred in the watersheds that contribute runoff to the upper San Pedro River in Sonora, Mexico, and southeast Arizona. These changes, observed using a series of remotely sensed images taken in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, have been implicated in the alteration of the basin hydrologic response. The Cannonsville subwatershed, located in the Catskill/Delaware watershed complex that delivers water to New York City, provides a contrast in land cover change. In this region, the Cannonsville watershed condition has improved over a comparable time period. A landscape assessment tool using a geographic information system (GIS) has been developed that automates the parameterization of the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) and KINEmatic Runoff and EROSion (KINEROS) hydrologic models. The Automated Geospatial Watershed Assessment (AGWA) tool was used to prepare parameter input files for the Upper San Pedro Basin, a subwatershed within the San Pedro undergoing significant changes, and the Cannonsville watershed using historical land cover data. Runoff and sediment yield were simulated using these models. In the Cannonsville watershed, land cover change had a beneficial impact on modeled watershed response due to the transition from agriculture to forest land cover. Simulation results for the San Pedro indicate that increasing urban and agricultural areas and the simultaneous invasion of woody plants and decline of grasslands resulted in increased annual and event runoff volumes, flashier flood response, and decreased water quality due to sediment loading. These results demonstrate the usefulness of integrating remote sensing and distributed hydrologic models through the use of GIS for assessing watershed condition and the relative impacts of land cover transitions on hydrologic response.