Genetic engineering and the Moral Status of Non-Human Species

Genetic modification leads to several important moral issues. Up until now they have mainly been discussed from the viewpoint that only individual living beings, above all animals, are morally considerable. The standpoint that also collective entities such as species belong to the moral sphere have seldom been taken into account in a more thorough way, although it is advocated by several important environmental ethicists. The main purpose of this article is to analyze in more detail than often has been done what the practical consequences of this ethical position would be for the use of genetic engineering on animals and plants. The practical consequences of the holistic standpoint (focused on collective entities) of Holmes Rolston, III, is compared with the practical consequences of the individualistic standpoints (focused on individual living beings) of Bernard E. Rollin and Philipp Balzer, Klaus Peter Rippe, and Peter Schaber, respectively. The article also discusses whether the claim that species are morally considerable is tenable as a foundation for policy decisions on genetic engineering.     

Bis(4-chlorophenyl) sulfone (BCPS) in Swedish marine and fresh water wildlife-a screening study

Bis(4-chlorophenyl) sulfone (BCPS) is a high production volume chemical (HPVC) applied in thermostable polymers. BCPS has been detected as an environmental contaminant both in Europe and in North America but it is still not a commonly studied pollutant. In this study, three Baltic Sea fish species; herring (Clupea harengus), salmon (Salmo salar) and perch (Perca fluviatilis) from the Swedish coast, and one inland fish species, arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus), were analysed to screen for the occurrence and distribution of BCPS. Salmon and arctic char, were sampled in the early 1970s as well as the late 1990s. Fish eating grey seal (Halichoerus gryphus) and guillemot (Uria aalge) from the Baltic Sea were included to screen for whether BCPS biomagnify or not. The representativeness of the analysed samples for studying bioaccumulation of environmental pollutants was compared through analysis of two well known persistent and bioaccumulating compounds, 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB-153), and 4,4'-DDE. Pooled muscle and blubber samples based on 4-10 individuals were used for analysis, as well as individual samples of grey seal blubber. 2,4,4'-Trichlorodiphenyl sulfone, was synthesised and applied as an internal standard. BCPS was detected in all marine samples but in only one of the fresh water fish samples. The highest BCPS concentrations detected, 1600 and 1900 ng/g lipid weighet (l.w.), were found in muscle from Baltic guillemot. The results indicate that BCPS is bioaccumulated in both grey seal and guillemot, and that the guillemot has higher concentrations of BCPS than the grey seal (50-500 ng/g l.w.). The concentrations found in different species of fish from the Baltic Sea ranged between 15-37 ng/g l.w. and lower concentrations were found in freshwater species (n.d.-1.8 ng/g l.w.). The present study shows that BCPS is found in all investigated species of wildlife but, in most species, still at low concentrations. However, the guillemot has levels in the low ppm range indicating a considerable biomagnification of BCPS in this species.     

Frontal impact dummy kinematics in oblique frontal collisions: evaluation against post mortem human subject test data

OBJECTIVE: Today, a predominant percentage of vehicles involved in car crashes are exposed to oblique or frontal offset collisions. The aim of this study is to evaluate the 50th percentile male Hybrid III, THOR 99, and THOR Alpha dummies by comparing them with the corresponding kinematics of post mortem human subjects (PMHS) in this type of collision. METHODS: The PMHS data include results from oblique frontal collision tests. They include sled tests with near-side and far-side belt geometries at 15 degrees , 30 degrees , and 45 degrees angles. The test subjects were restrained with a three-point lap-shoulder belt and the Delta V was 30 km/h. RESULTS: The results from the Hybrid III and THOR 99 tests showed that, in most of the test, the head trajectories were an average of approximately 0.1 m shorter than those from equivalent PMHS. The Hybrid III and THOR 99 far-side belt geometry tests showed that the belt remained in place longer on the shoulder of the Hybrid III than on the THOR 99 and the THOR Alpha. This was probably due to a stiffer lumbar spine in the Hybrid III and to a large groove in the steel of the superior surface of the Hybrid III shoulder structure. The THOR 99 escaped from the shoulder belt about 40-50 ms earlier than the THOR Alpha. The results from the THOR Alpha tests show that the head trajectory accorded fairly well with the PMHS data, as long as the shoulder belt did not slip off the shoulder. Although the THOR Alpha shoulder escaped the shoulder belt in the 45 degrees far-side belt geometry, the PMHS did not. This may be due to the THOR Alpha shoulder design, with approximately 0.05 m smaller superior and medial shoulder range-of-motion, in combination with a relatively soft lumbar spine. CONCLUSIONS: The THOR Alpha provides head trajectories similar to those of the PMHS under these loading conditions, provided the shoulder belt remains in position on the shoulder. When the shoulder belt slipped off the dummy shoulder, the head kinematics was altered. The shoulder range-of-motion may be a contributing factor to the overall kinematics of an occupant in oblique frontal impact situations where the occupant moves in a trajectory at an angle from that of the longitudinal direction of the car.     

Knowledge transfer between researchers and practitioners in SUCOZOMA

A primary aim of the SUCOZOMA research program has been the transfer of knowledge from the scientific community to research users. This paper describes the intentions and ambitions regarding knowledge transfer within the program, reflecting the aim of its financier, the Swedish Foundation of Strategic Environmental Research, but also a general trend within research policy. The study investigates the areas in which SUCOZOMA has actively tried to transfer knowledge, reaching out to management and different practitioners. Many examples of communication and participation of research users in the program are described. The paper also identifies the bottlenecks and limits to communication.     

The risk of whiplash injury in the rear seat compared to the front seat in rear impacts

One hundred ninety-five rear impacts with both front- and rear-seat occupants in the struck car, where at least one occupant sustained permanent disability, were selected for study. There was a significantly higher disability risk for the female rear-seat occupant compared with the male driver. Furthermore, a higher risk was found for female rear-seat occupants compared with female front-seat passengers. The disability risk for occupants of the driver's seat was three times higher for females than for males, and four times higher for females in the rear seat. In the future, test methods should consider the risk of whiplash injury in both the front and the rear seat.     

罗斯比中心区域气候模型Ⅰ:对当前欧洲气候的气候学及性能模拟

描述了罗斯比中心区域气候模型(RCA2)并依据观测评估了其对整个欧洲当前气候的模拟结果.指出了模型平均气候和气候变率中的系统偏差,确定了关键参数化的缺欠.对一些近地面参数,尤其是温度、降水、地表能量收支和云量进行了较为详细的研究.模型模拟的最近的气候和变率与真实情况高度吻合.强调了地表辐射收支分量的补偿误差,这些偏差的基本原因追溯到云、降水和辐射参数化的相关方面.模型有过于频繁产生小量级降水的倾向,这直接影响到云-辐射相互作用和地表温度的模拟.在评估由分析的边界条件驱动的高分辨率RCM时,对观测结果的使用要非常小心.当考虑到降水和云量时更是如此,因为观测的不确定性经常大于RCM的偏差.     

罗斯比中心区域气候模型Ⅱ:北极圈气候的应用

作为ARCMIP国际计划的一部分,罗斯比中心区域气候模型(RCA2)针对整个北冰洋地区的气候作了数值模拟整合,并与来自sHEBA数据集的观测资料作了比较,RCA2标准模型对北极冬季的云量和长波辐射的模拟较实况偏多.通过引入新的云量参数化方案(该参数化方案显著地改进了云量的年循环)减少了这部分误差,确定了介于晴空向下大气长波辐射与云层底部的长波辐射的补偿率,利用可以更准确描述冰晶与太阳辐射相互作用的辐射方案修正了模型,从而使得模型对云-太阳辐射间的相互作用的描述更接近实际.在模拟晴空辐射部分,由于太阳辐射大气透射率过大,经常在边界层云的顶部产生正偏差.引入真实海冰和积雪两种表面反照率的时间变化,对准确模拟地面能量净收支是至关重要的.同样,为了准确模拟北极圈地区近地面的热力学过程,将雪面温度作为预报量引入模型中也似乎是必不可少的.     

海岸带可持续管理(SUCOZOMA)计划:成果与挑战

1996年由瑞典环境战略研究基金会发起的"海岸带可持续管理"(SUCOZOMA)研究计划是人们公认的全球、地区及国家日益严重的海岸带问题所促成的.该计划探讨了沿海富营养化、捕捞实践以及过度开发的海岸资源等复杂问题,集中致力于多学科性,利益相关者之间的合作,并把重点放在公众和决策者认为最严重的问题上,当该计划于2004年结束时,共计完成或接近完成了22篇博士论文,出版了约100篇文章.40多位科学家参与了该计划.哥德堡大学是开展该研究的主要单位,但在斯德哥尔摩大学,贝耶(Beijer)研究所,以及瑞典皇家科学院Kristineberg海洋研究站和国家渔业委员会内也设有重要的科研小组.在计划实施期间,建立了利益相关人员网络,"海岸带可持续管理"(SUCOZOMA)为众多与海岸带综合管理(ICZM)相关的政治和行政管理程序作出了贡献.SUCOZOMA的成果可分为不同的类别.计划两个阶段中许多项目产生了可称为技术性的或实用的成果可供在下列方面直接应用,例如:贻贝养殖,产卵场的恢复和维护,海豹安全渔具或开发不足鱼种的可持续捕捞.其他的成果具有政策性的特点,这些成果的影响只有在新政策付诸实施时才能得到适当的评估.SUCOZOMA产生了有关海岸科学和管理的、同时涉及有效开展面向终端用户的多学科计划所需机构的重要的新知识.     

Juvenile Survival in a Population of Neotropical Migrant Birds

Determination of population productivity of Neotropical migrant birds and assessment of breeding habitat quality have been based on population densities and nesting success. Data on juvenile survival improve our estimates of population productivity, provide information on factors during the post-fledging period that affect this productivity and, with comparative data, enable us to better assess breeding habitat quality. We present the first estimate of post-fledging juvenile survival in a population of Neotropical migrant birds. We studied post-fledging survival in a population of Wood Thrush ( Hylocichla mustelina) in southern Missouri, (U.S.) an area hypothesized to contain source populations. Nesting success during our study period was 0.266, and individual survival within the nest was 0.245. Post-fledging survival during the first 8 weeks after fledging was 0.423. Survival varied significantly between post-fledging weekly age classes, with survival of weeks 1, 2, 3, and 4 through 8 being 0.716, 0.930, 0.637, and 1.00, respectively. Probability of predation after fledging was 0.506. Probability of mortality by other causes was 0.071. Probability of predation varied by weekly age class and may have been related to behaviors occurring at different developmental stages. Post-fledging survival was not correlated with nestling mass and did not change throughout the course of the breeding season. Analysis of the source/sink status of the population based on our estimates of nesting success and post-fledging survival indicates that young were being produced below replacement levels during our study period. Large-scale management decisions should take into account potential fluctuations in the productivity of Neotropical migrant populations over time. Data on post-fledging juvenile survival are needed from other populations of Neotropical migrant birds to more accurately assess differential productivity between populations and better assess breeding habitat quality.     

Female house martins (Delichon urbica) reduce egg androgen deposition in response to a challenge of their immune system

Female birds deposit in the yolks of eggs substantial amounts of androgens, such as testosterone and androstenedione. These androgens have been shown to speed up nestling development, induce a fast development of ornaments and increase dominance in adults. Experiments in several species have reported that females invest greater amounts of androgens in the eggs fathered by attractive males, suggesting that yolk androgen is a costly investment for either the offspring or the mother. There is some evidence that nestling immunocompetence may be partially suppressed by high levels of yolk androgens, but it is not known whether this is also the case for females. We tested this hypothesis in the house martin by inducing an immune challenge through an injection of sheep red blood cells, a standard challenge of the humoral immune system. Experimental birds laid eggs with lower amounts of yolk androstenedione than controls, and there was a similar non-significant trend for testosterone. Furthermore, the probability of laying a replacement clutch was higher for birds that had laid a first clutch with relatively high levels of yolk testosterone. These results suggest that yolk androgen deposition is limited by immune costs in the female, and that only females in good condition may afford to invest high levels of androgen in eggs in this species.