Mandated to fail? Humanitarian agencies and the protection of Palestinian children

This paper considers the efforts of United Nations and international agencies to address the threats to Palestinian children arising from Israeli occupation. It contains an account of the reasons why agencies have failed, over many years, to prevent systematic violations by the Israeli authorities and settlers. The discussion is organised around two inter‐related domains: institutional and political. The paper argues that, in the occupied Palestinian territory (oPt), limitations to the ways in which child protection has been conceptualised and pursued in practice are abundantly evident. Nevertheless, political pressure by Western donor governments serves to constrain an approach to child protection that is more preventative in nature, that addresses more explicitly Israeli violations of international law, and that reflects the experience and aspirations of Palestinian children themselves. Ultimately, therefore, the failure to protect Palestinian children must be seen not only as a result of humanitarian miscalculation but also as a consequence of political strategy.     

Bisphenol A endocrine disruptor complete degradation using TiO2 photocatalysis with ozone

Bisphenol A is an endocrine disruptor. Complete mineralization of bisphenol A is therefore a primary environmental issue. Here, the combination of ozonation and photocatalysis by TiO₂ is proposed for the degradation and final mineralization of bisphenol A. TiO₂ films deposited onto two sides of an Al lamina show good stability and high surface roughness. We used a specific experimental setup employing two facing ultraviolet lamps and TiO₂ layers, together with an ozone flux. High-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry determinations on bisphenol A solutions sampled at different reaction times and Fourier Transform Infrared analyses of the oxide at the end of the reaction were performed to study the reaction intermediates and the overall degradation mechanism. Our results show that pollutant mineralization achieved with the combined method is far higher, of 55% in the case of 0.3 mM bisphenol A, than those obtained by individual treatments such as photolysis (<3%), ozonation (6%), photocatalysis (6%), and by other combined processes: photolytic ozonation (13%) and catalytic ozonation (15%). This finding is explained by the occurrence of highly synergistic effects.     

Assessment of regional capabilities for agricultural coexistence with genetically modified maize

Background

The coexistence of agricultural production with and without the use of genetically modified (GV) crops is supposed to be made possible in Germany by regulations, which include minimal distances of GV-fields to potentially susceptible crop fields and habitats. To explore the impact of these regulations on region specific coexistence potentials, we broadened the applicability of an existing method for the simulation of the spatial distribution of arable fields cropped with conventional, organic and GV-maize. We used simulations which combine a variety of minimum distances of GV-maize fields to assess regional specific options and limitations for coexistence.

Results

An existing method was extended to be applicable for different spatial scales, from the large (e.g. Federal State) to small (e.g. municipality). Input data consisted of cropping statistics, geometry of arable fields and protected areas. Scenarios of cropping situations included various minimal distances between GV-maize fields and protected areas and various proportions of maize within the areas. The results of the simulations represent possible distribution patterns of non-GV and GV-maize fields as well as the size of the remaining area in which additional GV-maize can be grown without violating the minimal distance rules. As suspected, increasing proportions of GV-maize and increasing minimal distances lower the areas suitable for additional GV-maize. However, the relation between the area of GV-maize grown and those suitable for GV-maize cultivation varied between the scenarios. Moreover, the variability between the municipalities was even more evident, due to varying landscape structure (proportion of maize, the ratio total arable land to maize, proportion of protected areas). Areas with high proportions of GV-maize, of protected areas and of maize could be problematical for coexistence. We discuss these parameters with regard to other coexistence studies.

Conclusions

Our method is suitable to simulate the spatial distribution of fields cultivated with GV-crops and non-GV-crops on various scales. Simulations on the scale of a Federal State reveals those areas, in which coexistence could be problematical. Simulations on a county scale, however, allow more insight into options and restrictions for coexistence in relation to landscape structural characteristics, which also can be transferred to larger scales. On the scale of municipalities simulations can help to analyse the limits of coexistence in areas of high conflict potential, moreover this level is more realistic with regard to practical agricultural decisions on the farm level.

Zusammenfassung

Hintergrund

Die Koexistenz verschiedener landwirtschaftlicher Produktionsformen ?C mit und ohne Anbau von gentechnisch ver?nderten Pflanzen (GVO) ?C soll durch gesetzlich fixierte Regeln erm?glicht werden, die unter anderem die Mindestabst?nde von GVO-Anbaufl?chen zu potenziell empfindlichen anderen Ackerfl?chen und Biotopen festlegen. Hier wurde eine Methode weiterentwickelt zur Simulation der r?umlichen Verteilung der Anbaufl?chen von konventionellem, ?kologischem und GV-Mais um regionsspezifische Koexistenzpotenziale von gentechnisch ver?ndertem Mais, sowie potenzielle Konfliktgebiete zu identifizieren.

Ergebnisse

Eine für Brandenburg entwickelte GIS-Simulationsmethode wurde durch die Verwendung fl?chendeckend vorhandener Daten so erweitert, dass sie bundesweit übertragbar ist und auf unterschiedlichen r?umlichen Skalenebenen angewandt werden kann, von gro?r?umig (Bundesland) bis lokal (Gemeinde). Als Eingangsdaten wurden Anbaustatistiken sowie Geometrien der Ackerfl?chen und von FFH- und Naturschutzgebieten verwendet. In den Szenarien wurden Abstandsregelungen zwischen Maisanbaufl?chen und zu Schutzgebieten und der GV-Maisanteil variiert. Die Ergebnisse der Simulation sind m?gliche r?umliche Verteilungen von Nicht-GV-Mais und GV-Mais sowie die potenziell für den Anbau von GV-Mais zur Verfügung stehende Fl?che. Mit zunehmendem GV-Maisanteil und Mindestabst?nden zu Schutzgebieten wird die für den GV-Mais zur Verfügung stehende Fl?che st?rker ausgesch?pft. Der Anteil des GV-Mais an der potenziell für den Anbau von GV-Mais zur Verfügung stehenden Fl?che variierte zwischen den Szenarien, und noch st?rker jedoch regional zwischen den Landkreisen, verursacht durch deren verschiedene agrar- und landschaftsstrukturelle Ausstattung (Maisanbauanteil, Verh?ltnis Ackerlandsanteil/Maisanbauanteil, Schutzgebietsanteil). Ein r?umliches Konfliktpotenzial bei der Umsetzung der Koexistenz ist in Gebieten hohen Nutzungsdrucks zu erwarten, d.h. in denen sowohl der Maisanbauanteil an der Ackerfl?che und der Anbauanteil von GV-Mais, als auch der Schutzgebietsanteil hoch sind. Diese Faktoren werden diskutiert in Bezug zu Ergebnissen weiterer Koexistenzstudien.

Schlussfolgerungen

Die vorgestellte Methode ist geeignet, die r?umliche Verteilung des Anbaus von Nicht-GV-Mais und GV-Mais auf unterschiedlichen Skalenebenen zu simulieren: Die Ebene eines Bundeslandes liefert Hinweise auf Gebiete, in denen die Koexistenz problematisch sein k?nnte und kann als Grundlage weiterer Berechnungen, wie zum Beispiel der Modellierung von Genflüssen auf Landesebene dienen. Die Simulation auf der Ebene eines Landkreises oder einer Gemeinde erm?glicht genauere Aussagen über die M?glichkeiten und Grenzen der Koexistenz. Auf der Ebene der Landkreise k?nnen z.B. unterschiedliche agrar- und landschaftsstrukturelle Situationen untersucht und für eine nachfolgende Regionalisierung angewandt werden. Die Ebene der Gemeinden erlaubt die Analyse der Grenzen der Koexistenz für Gebiete mit h?herem r?umlichen Konfliktpotenzial. Simulationen auf lokaler Ebene erscheinen darüber hinaus n?her an den Entscheidungsm?glichkeiten der landwirtschaftlichen Praxis.     

What enables coexistence in plant communities? Weak versus strong species traits and the role of local processes

Explaining the coexistence of species that basically depend on the same resources has been a brainteaser for generations of ecologists. Different mechanisms have been proposed to facilitate coexistence in plant communities, where space is an important resource. Using a stochastic cellular automaton simulation model we analyze - separately and in combination - the influence of different species traits and processes which alter local competition on the coexistence of plant species over a fixed time horizon. We show that different species traits operate on different time scales in competition. We therefore suggest the concept of weak versus strong traits according to short- or long-term exclusion of species differing in these traits. As a consequence, highly non-linear trade-offs between weak and strong traits can result in communities. Furthermore, we found that trade-offs based on physiological species traits such as plant lifetime, dispersal range and plant growth, did not support broad and long-term coexistence—further processes such as density-dependent mortality and light-dependent colonization were necessary. This suggests that coexistence in plant communities requires (stabilizing) local processes to support the (equalizing) trade-offs in species traits.     

Variance in the male reproductive success of western gorillas: acquiring females is just the beginning

Variance in male reproductive success is expected to be high in sexually dimorphic mammals, even when it is modulated by the costs and benefits of group living. Here, we investigate the variance in reproductive success of male western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), a highly dimorphic primate with long-term male–female associations, using 12.5 years of data collected at Mbeli Bai in northern Congo. Access to mates and offspring survival were both major sources of variance in male reproductive success. Males with larger harems had lower offspring mortality with no apparent reduction in female fertility or observed tenure length, so the size of harems did not seem to be limited by female feeding competition or by the risk of takeovers and infanticide by outsider males. The lower mortality in larger harems may reflect improved vigilance against predators, and females may cluster around males that enhance offspring survival. Thus, this study illustrates how a detailed analysis of the components of male reproductive success can shed light on the interrelated social and ecological aspects that affect it.     

Reaching National Kyoto Targets in Germany and Sustainable Development

Within this paper, we analyze the fulfillment of the Kyoto emissions reduction commitment particularly in Germany and its implication on the long-term paths of all macro-variables. Germany, like all other industrial or Annex-B countries, must reduce its emissions by 2010 according to what we call a Kyoto Forever scenario. We specifically investigate tradable permits as reduction measures in a national overlapping generations (OLG) model, where we change the discounting technique by using generation adjusted discounting (GAD) in comparison to conventional OLG discounting. We show that within our model framework Germany is able to develop along growing paths of, for example, gross domestic product (GDP) in sharp contrast to conventional results of OLG simulations. At the same time, current generations must share higher burdens in terms of lower GDP, per capita consumption and employment which can be initially interpreted as contemporary costs for reaching sustainable paths and, second, contributions for internalizing external effects. However, all costs in terms of lower macro-variables for current living generations are re-compensated through higher future values. This effect can be interpreted as an intergenerational application of full cost bearance, or, in other words, the polluter pays principle which is oriented towards sustainability of greenhouse gases abatement.     

Cyclodextrin-enhanced solubilization of pentachlorophenol in water

The solubilization of pentachlorophenol (PCP) by beta-cyclodextrin (beta-CD) and three of its most used derivatives, methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (MCD), hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin (HPCD) and carboxymethyl-beta-cyclodextrin (CMCD), has been investigated. The formation of soluble inclusion complexes between PCP and cyclodextrin (CDs) increases the aqueous solubility of PCP. Due to the ionizable nature of PCP, the effects of pH and ionic strength on the equilibrium complexation were evaluated. All CDs were found to form 1:1 inclusion complexes. Equilibrium constants calculated from solubility enhancement experiments revealed that the stability of the complexes was dependent on the polarity of the compound, on the ionic strength and on the cyclodextrin type. In general, weaker equilibrium constants were observed for PCP with beta-CD than with MCD or CMCD. For all CDs, the complexation or the solubilization efficiency of PCP (weak acid) depended on pH and ionic strength. Moreover, we observed that the solubility of the beta-CD/PCP complex was lower than that of the beta-CD molecule and dependent on the ionic strength of the solution. Although the equilibrium constant of PCP/CD complex was found to be higher at pH 3 than at pH 7 in water, extraction of PCP from porous media by a CD solution at neutral pH would be achievable due to the higher PCP aqueous solubility in neutral/basic media.     

Evidence of genetic damage in grass gobies and mussels from the Venice lagoon

The presence of genetic damage has been investigated in two native species of the Venice lagoon: the common mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis and the grass goby Zosterisessor ophiocephalus. Two sampling campaigns were performed in summer 1998 and 1999. Aromatic-like DNA adducts were analysed in selected tissues of gobies and mussels by using the 32P-postlabelling assay. In 1999, micronuclei and other nuclear abnormalities were additionally scored on gill cells and haemocytes of individual mussels whereas inorganic (As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb, Sn) as well as organic contaminants (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls and other chlorinated compounds) were measured in the total mussel pulp. Compared to the lagoon inlet area, gobies and mussels from the industrial district (Marghera) showed significant DNA adduct levels and increased frequencies of cytogenetic alterations (evidence of genetic damage was absent or inconsistent in other sites). The substantial levels of aromatic and chlorinated contaminants detected in mussels from Marghera also support the exposure of native organisms to genotoxic agents.