Health risk assessment of potentially harmful elements and dietary minerals from vegetables irrigated with untreated wastewater,Pakistan

In the developing world, vegetables are commonly grown in suburban areas irrigated with untreated wastewater containing potentially harmful elements (PHEs). In Pakistan, there is no published work on the bioaccessibility aspect of PHEs and dietary minerals (DMs) in sewage-irrigated soil or the vegetables grown on such soils in Pakistan. Several industrial districts of Pakistan were selected for assessment of the risk associated with the ingestion of vegetables grown over sewage-irrigated soils. Both the total and bioaccessible fraction of PHEs (Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, and Pb) and DMs (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Ca, Mg, and I) in soils and vegetable samples were measured. The concentrations of these PHEs and DMs in sewage-irrigated and control soils were below published upper threshold limits. However, compared to control soils, sewage irrigation over the years decreased soil pH (7.7 vs 8.1) and enhanced dissolved organic carbon (1.8 vs 0.8 %), which could enhance the phyto-availability of PHEs and DMs to crops. Of the PHEs and DMs, the highest transfer factor (soil to plant) was noted for Cd and Ca, respectively. Concentrations of PHEs in most of the sewage-irrigated vegetables were below the published upper threshold limits, except for Cd in the fruiting portion of eggplant and bell pepper (0.06–0.08 mg/kg Cd, dry weight) at three locations in Gujarat and Kasur districts. The bioaccessible fraction of PHEs can reduce the context of dietary intake measurements compared to total concentrations, but differences between both measurements were not significant for Cd. Since the soils of the sampled districts are not overly contaminated compared to control sites, vegetables grown over sewage-irrigated soils would provide an opportunity to harvest mineral-rich vegetables potentially providing consumers 62, 60, 12, 104, and 63 % higher dietary intake of Cu, Mn, Zn, Ca, and Mg, respectively. Based on Fe and vanadium correlations in vegetables, it is inferred that a significant proportion of total dietary Fe intake could be contributed by soil particles adhered to the consumable portion of vegetables. Faecal sterol ratios were used to identify and distinguish the source of faecal contamination in soils from Gujranwala, Gujarat, and Lahore districts, confirming the presence of human-derived sewage biomarkers at different stages of environmental alteration. A strong correlation of some metals with soil organic matter concentration was observed, but none with sewage biomarkers.     

Efficacy of woody biomass and biochar for alleviating heavy metal bioavailability in serpentine soil

Crops grown in metal-rich serpentine soils are vulnerable to phytotoxicity. In this study, Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) biomass and woody biochar were examined as amendments on heavy metal immobilization in a serpentine soil. Woody biochar was produced by slow pyrolysis of Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) biomass at 300 and 500 °C. A pot experiment was conducted for 6 weeks with tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) at biochar application rates of 0, 22, 55 and 110 t ha^?1. The CaCl₂ and sequential extractions were adopted to assess metal bioavailability and fractionation. Six weeks after germination, plants cultivated on the control could not survive, while all the plants were grown normally on the soils amended with biochars. The most effective treatment for metal immobilization was BC500-110 as indicated by the immobilization efficiencies for Ni, Mn and Cr that were 68, 92 and 42 %, respectively, compared to the control. Biochar produced at 500 °C and at high application rates immobilized heavy metals significantly. Improvements in plant growth in biochar-amended soil were related to decreasing in metal toxicity as a consequence of metal immobilization through strong sorption due to high surface area and functional groups.     

Characteristics of PM<Subscript>2.5</Subscript>, CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> and particle-number concentration in mass transit railway carriages in Hong Kong

Fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) levels, carbon dioxide (CO₂) levels and particle-number concentrations (PNC) were monitored in train carriages on seven routes of the mass transit railway in Hong Kong between March and May 2014, using real-time monitoring instruments. The 8-h average PM_2.5 levels in carriages on the seven routes ranged from 24.1 to 49.8 µg/m³, higher than levels in Finland and similar to those in New York, and in most cases exceeding the standard set by the World Health Organisation (25 µg/m³). The CO₂ concentration ranged from 714 to 1801 ppm on four of the routes, generally exceeding indoor air quality guidelines (1000 ppm over 8 h) and reaching levels as high as those in Beijing. PNC ranged from 1506 to 11,570 particles/cm³, lower than readings in Sydney and higher than readings in Taipei. Correlation analysis indicated that the number of passengers in a given carriage did not affect the PM_2.5 concentration or PNC in the carriage. However, a significant positive correlation (p < 0.001, R ² = 0.834) was observed between passenger numbers and CO₂ levels, with each passenger contributing approximately 7.7–9.8 ppm of CO₂. The real-time measurements of PM_2.5 and PNC varied considerably, rising when carriage doors opened on arrival at a station and when passengers inside the carriage were more active. This suggests that air pollutants outside the train and passenger movements may contribute to PM_2.5 levels and PNC. Assessment of the risk associated with PM_2.5 exposure revealed that children are most severely affected by PM_2.5 pollution, followed in order by juveniles, adults and the elderly. In addition, females were found to be more vulnerable to PM_2.5 pollution than males (p < 0.001), and different subway lines were associated with different levels of risk.     

Elemental concentrations and in vitro bioaccessibility in Canadian background soils

Elemental concentrations and bioaccessibility were determined in background soils collected in Canada as part of the North American Geochemical Landscapes Project. The concentrations of As, Cr, Cu, Co, Ni and Zn were higher in the C-horizon (parent material) compared to 0–5 cm (surface soil), and this observation along with the regional distribution suggested that most of the variability in concentrations of these elements were governed by the bedrock characteristics. Unlike the above-stated elements, Pb and Cd concentrations were higher in the surface layer reflecting the potential effects of anthropogenic deposition. Elemental bioaccessibility was variable decreasing in the order Cd > Pb > Cu > Zn > Ni > Co > As > Cr for the surface soils. With the exception of As, bioaccessibility was generally higher in the C-horizon soils compared to the 0–5 cm soils. The differences in metal bioaccessibility between the 0–5 cm and the C-horizon and among the provinces may reflect geological processes and speciation. The mean, median or 95th percentile bioaccessibility for As, Cr, Cu, Co, Ni and Pb were all below 100 %, suggesting that the use of site-specific bioaccessibility results for these elements will yield more accurate estimation of the risk associated with oral bioavailability for sites where soil ingestion is the major contributor of human health risk.     

Geochemical disturbance of soil cover in the nonferrous mining centers of the Selenga River basin

The anthropogenic geochemical transformation of soil cover in large nonferrous mining centers of the Selenga River basin was assessed. The results of the geochemical survey of 2010–2012 revealed the spatial distribution patterns and abundances of 18 hazardous heavy metals and metalloids in the soils of Erdenet (Mongolia) and Zakamensk (Buryat republic, Russian Federation). In both cities, mining activities disturbed soil cover which accumulates Mo, Cu, As, Sb, W in Erdenet and Bi, W, Cd, Be, Pb, Mo, Sb in Zakamensk. Maximum accumulation of elements in Erdenet is restricted to the industrial zone. In Zakamensk, it has spread on ½ of the territory with the degree of multielemental pollution exceeding the extremely dangerous level by 16 times. The effect of mining centers on the state of the river system is local and does not spread to the Selenga River. Downstream from Erdenet, an artificial pool intercepts heavy metal and metalloid flows of the Erdenetii-Gol River. By contrast, downstream from the tailing dumps of the Dzhida tungsten–molybdenum plant the concentrations of ore elements W and Mo and their accessories Bi and Cd in the Modonkul River exceed background values by 146, 20, 57, and 21 times, respectively, decreasing by an order of magnitude 30 km downstream.     

Atrazine contamination in agricultural soils from the Yangtze River Delta of China and associated health risks

Atrazine is one of the most widely applied and persistent herbicides in the world. In view of limited information on the regional contamination of atrazine in soils in China, this study investigated the spatial distribution and environmental impacts of atrazine in agricultural soils collected from the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) as an illustrative analysis of rapidly developing regions in the country. The results showed that the concentrations of atrazine in the YRD agricultural soils ranged from <1.0 to 113 ng/g dry weight, with a mean of 5.7 ng/g, and a detection rate of 57.7 % in soils. Pesticide factory might be a major source for the elevated levels of atrazine in Zhejiang Province. The contamination of atrazine was closely associated with land use types. The concentrations and detection rates of atrazine were higher in corn fields and mulberry fields than in rice paddy fields. There was no significant difference in compositions of soil microbial phospholipids fatty acids among the areas with different atrazine levels. Positive relationship (R = 0.417, p < 0.05, n = 30) was observed between atrazine and total microbial biomass. However, other factors, such as soil type and land management practice, might have stronger influences on soil microbial communities. Human health risks via exposure to atrazine in soils were estimated according to the methods recommended by the US EPA. Atrazine by itself in all the soil samples imposed very low carcinogenic risks (<10^?6) and minimal non-cancer risks (hazard index <1) to adults and children.     

Effects of an iron-silicon material,a synthetic zeolite and an alkaline clay on vegetable uptake of As and Cd from a polluted agricultural soil and proposed remediation mechanisms

Economic and highly effective methods of in situ remediation of Cd and As polluted farmland in mining areas are urgently needed. Pot experiments with Brassica chinensis L. were carried out to determine the effects of three soil amendments [a novel iron-silicon material (ISM), a synthetic zeolite (SZ) and an alkaline clay (AC)] on vegetable uptake of As and Cd. SEM–EDS and XRD analyses were used to investigate the remediation mechanisms involved. Amendment with ISM significantly reduced the concentrations of As and Cd in edible parts of B. chinensis (by 84–94 % and 38–87 %, respectively), to levels that met food safety regulations and was much lower than those achieved by SZ and AC. ISM also significantly increased fresh biomass by 169–1412 % and 436–731 % in two consecutive growing seasons, while SZ and AC did not significantly affect vegetable growth. Correlation analysis suggested that it was the mitigating effects of ISM on soil acidity and on As and Cd toxicity, rather than nutrient amelioration, that contributed to the improvement in plant growth. SEM–EDS analysis showed that ISM contained far more Ca, Fe and Mn than did SZ or AC, and XRD analysis showed that in the ISM these elements were primarily in the form of silicates, oxides and phosphates that had high capacities for chemisorption of metal(loid)s. After incubation with solutions containing 800 mg L^?1 AsO₄ ^2? or Cd²⁺, ISM bound distinctly higher levels of As (6.18 % in relative mass percent by EDS analysis) and Cd (7.21 % in relative mass percent by EDS analysis) compared to SZ and AC. XRD analysis also showed that ISM facilitated the precipitation of Cd²⁺ as silicates, phosphates and hydroxides, and that arsenate combined with Fe, Al, Ca and Mg to form insoluble arsenate compounds. These precipitation mechanisms were much more active in ISM than in SZ or AC. Due to the greater pH elevation caused by the abundant calcium silicate, chemisorption and precipitation mechanisms in ISM treatments could be further enhanced. That heavy metal(loid)s fixation mechanisms of ISM ensure the remediation more irreversible and more resilient to environmental changes. With appropriate application rate and proper nutrients supplement, the readily available and economic ISM is a very promising amendment for safe crop production on multi-metal(loids) polluted soils.     

Characterization of hard- and softwood biochars pyrolyzed at high temperature

A wide range of waste biomass/waste wood feedstocks abundantly available at mine sites provide the opportunity to produce biochars for cost-effective improvement of mine tailings and contaminated land at metal mines. In the present study, soft- and hardwood biochars derived from pine and jarrah woods at high temperature (700 °C) were characterized for their physiochemical properties including chemical components, electrical conductivity, pH, zeta potential, cation-exchange capacity (CEC), alkalinity, BET surface area and surface morphology. Evaluating and comparing these characteristics with available data from the literature have affirmed the strong dictation of precursor type on the physiochemical properties of the biochars. The pine and jarrah wood feedstocks are mainly different in their proportions of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, resulting in biochars with heterogeneous physiochemical properties. The hardwood jarrah biochar exhibits much higher microporosity, alkalinity and electrostatic capacity than the softwood pine. Correlation analysis and principal component analysis also show a good correlation between CEC–BET–alkalinity, and alkalinity–ash content. These comprehensive characterization and analysis results on biochars’ properties from feedstocks of hardwood (from forest land clearance at mine construction) and waste pine wood (from mining operations) will provide a good guide for tailoring biochar functionalities for remediating metal mine tailings. The relatively inert high-temperature biochars can be stored for a long term at mine closure after decades of operations.