Environmental Impacts of a Secondary Lead Smelter in Landskrona, Southern Sweden

Scandinavia has one secondary lead smelter that recycles lead from approximately 85% of used car batteries in Scandinavia and which has been active since the 1940s. The smelter, situated in Landskrona, has undergone a comprehensive clean up programme during the last decade, during which time production has doubled, while at the same time discharges of dust and lead to the atmosphere have decreased.Top and depth soil samples were taken on a 0.5km×0.5Km grid throughout the city of Landskrona, which covers an area of approximately 15km². Samples were analysed by ICPAES for a number of elements including Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd, As, Sb and Hg. Road dust samples from selected sites were collected and similarly analysed. Blood samples were taken from 37 volunteer schoolchildren (aged 8–11) from two schools in Landskrona. House dust samples were taken from each child's home. Soil samples were taken from homes which had gardens, public and school play areas. Elevated heavy metal concentrations were found in close proximity to the secondary lead smelter, and this soil enrichment influences the whole of the town, modified to some extent by the prevailing wind. The smelter does not influence the soil lead concentration at distances greater than 3.5km, where the soil reflects the background value for the area.Road dust samples also show decreases in lead concentrations with distance from the smelter. The average level of lead in house dust was considerably lower than that found in Birmingham, UK. Blood lead levels in the child population ranged from 1.5–5.1gdl^–1, with a mean of 3.05gdl^–1, showing a distinct decrease from those measured in 1978–82. No significant difference in blood lead concentrations with distance of the home from the smelter, nor between attenders at the two schools was revealed in the limited number of children studied.     

CDM Forestry and the Ultimate Objective of the Climate Convention

In its Article 2, the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change policymakers gave themselves a long-term dynamic mandate under uncertainty. Taking the example of forestry activities in developing countries, the present article discusses whether land-based climate change mitigation measures in the context of compensation mechanisms for human-induced greenhouse gas emissions are covered under the UNFCCC's ultimate objective. Both the problem of climate change and human intervention act over long, yet finite timeframes. The article argues for taking a dynamic 100-year timeframe as reference for present-day activities. It concludes that increasing biotic carbon storage is legitimate for measures that contribute to biodiversity conservation, as long as it does not serve as a pretext for neglecting technological change. Among all forestry options, the list of priorities should be avoiding deforestation and devegetation, sustainable forest management, and afforestation. The problem of saturation can be encountered by the combination of forestry with the increased use of wood products and bioenergy. Concluding, the article gathers criteria for forest climate activities in the post-2012 regime. JEL Classification: Q23, Q54; Q57; Q58     

Equity rules for burden sharing in the mitigation process of climate change

Although international negotiation on the mitigation of climate change is a process of determining burden-sharing rules between countries, there has been no clear agreement on equity principles for burden sharing. During the negotiating process up to the Kyoto Protocol, various proposals were made on such burden-sharing rules, but an agreement on emission targets for Annex I countries was achieved without explicitly agree-ing to any rules. In the next phase of the negotiation, debates on emission targets are likely to shift from those between developed countries to those between all parties to the convention. In such a phase, debates on burden-sharing rules will be revisited. The purpose of this paper is: (1) to determine implicitly a formula for the rule for burden sharing between Annex I countries that was considered to be underlying the emission targets of the Kyoto Protocol, and (2) to examine plausible emission targets and timing of commitments for non-Annex I countries in the future by using the result of the analysis on the Kyoto Protocol. A multi-regression method is used for this purpose. It was concluded that the burden sharing between Annex I countries in the Kyoto Protocol can mostly be explained by three variables: the increase in the rate of CO₂ emission during the years 1990 to 2010, the increase in the rate of afforestation between 1990 and 1995, and the GDP per capita at the time of negotiation. The timing of future commitments of developing countries and the levels of targets differ widely, depending on which index or formula is agreed as “equitable”. Some of the developing countries would have to start limiting their emissions within several years if GDP per capita or CO₂ per capita were chosen as the burden-sharing indicator. Developing countries would not have to make commitments until the mid-late 21st century if population growth rate were chosen. If the inferred formula of the Kyoto Protocol were applied to developing countries, they would have had to start mild limitation from 1990.     

The use of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) in disinfection of airborne bacteria

Contamination of indoor air by microbial pollutants has been increasingly recognized as a public health problem, and may be responsible for building-related illness (BRI) and sick-building syndrome (SBS). Bioaerosols such as fungi, bacteria, and viruses in indoor air can cause allergic and irritant responses, infectious diseases, respiratory problems, and hypersensitivity reactions. People sensitive to indoor environmental problems complain of a wide variety of symptoms ranging from headache, fatigue, nausea, sinus congestion, to eye, nose, and throat irritations.Although ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) with a predominant wavelength of 254 nm has been used for air disinfection for many years to minimize microbial numbers in the air, few quantitative data are available on the radiation susceptibilities of individual airborne microbes. There have been a number of UVGI studies documenting the effectiveness of UVGI for the control of microbes in controlled settings. Many of these studies documented the effectiveness of UVGI against airborne tuberculosis organisms.The studies described here used commercial type fan-powered shielded UVGI-containing fixtures to evaluate their effectiveness in air disinfection. Aerosolization tests were done in the contained environment of a negative pressure bioaerosol stainless steel testing chamber 0.75 m wide·3.7 m long. The chamber was designed so that microbes could be safely aerosolized and contained while traversing the chamber through the UVGI-containing fix-tures. Four commercial (Purair UV Germicidal Systems, Mount Vernon, N.Y.) fan-powered UVGI-containing fix-tures placed in the chamber were individually evaluated for their ability to disinfect individual bioaerosols of air-borne bacteria.Air samples were taken at the inlet and outlet of the UVGI-containing units positioned in the bioaerosol chamber, using Ace Glass all-glass impingers (AGI-30). Five bacterial species were individually aerosolized to evaluate their kill. The bacteria used to test all of the UVGI-containing units were vegetative cells of Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Staphylococcus aureus, and endospores of Bacillus subtilis. Based upon the concentration of bioaerosols collected at the inlet and outlet of the fixtures tested, the total overall microbial kills for the four fixtures with the filters in place and the UVGI units on were more than 99% for all the airborne vegetative bacteria tested, and a mean of over 75% for the B. subtilis endospores.All of the fixtures were efficient in the kill of the test vegetative bacteria used, even the more UVGI-resistant M. luteus vegetative cells and endospores of B. subtilis. Units such as these may provide an economical way to supplement existing air cleaning procedures used in indoor environments, and to kill airborne bacteria effectively without human exposure to UV light.     

Cycads: their evolution,toxins, herbivores and insect pollinators

Palaeobiological evidence indicates that gymnosperms were wind-pollinated and that insect pollination began in angiosperms in the Lower Cretaceous (ca. 135 mya) leading to close associations between higher plants and their pollinators. Cycads, which were widespread and pervasive throughout the Mesozoic (250-65 mya) are among the most primitive living seed-plants found today. Because pollination by beetles and by thrips has now been detected in several modern cycads, it is attractive to speculate that some insects and cycads had already developed similar mutualistic interactions in the Triassic (250-205 mya), long before the advent of angiosperms. We also draw attention to another key factor in this insect-plant relationship, namely secondary, defensive plant substances which must always have controlled interspecific interactions. Cycads mainly produce toxic azoglucosides and neurotoxic non-protein amino acids (e.g. BMAA), which apparently are crucial elements in the development and maintenance of mutualism (pollination) and parasitism (herbivory) by cycad-linked herbivores. We now add new results on the uptake and storage of the main toxin, cycasin, of the Mexican cycad Zamia furfuracea by its pollinator, the weevil Rhopalotria mollis, and by a specialist herbivore of Zamia integrifolia, the aposematic Atala butterfly Eumaeus atala.     

Globalization and multi-spatial trends in the coverage of protected-area conservation (1980-2000)

This study is focused on the global expansion of protected-area coverage that occurred during the 1980--2000 period. We examine the multi-scale patterning of four of the basic facets of this expansion: i) estimated increases at the world-regional and country-level scales of total protected-area coverage; ii) transboundary protected areas; iii) conservation corridor projects; and iv) type of conservation management. Geospatial patterning of protected-area designations is a reflection of the priorities of global conservation organizations and the globalization of post-Cold War political and economic arrangements. Local and national-level factors (political leadership and infrastructure) as well as international relations such as multilateral and bilateral aid combine with these globalization processes to impact the extent, type, and location of protected-area designations. We conclude that the interaction of these factors led to the creation and reinforcement of marked spatial differences (rather than tendencies toward worldwide evenness or homogenization) in the course of protected-area expansion during the 1980--2000 period.     

Twenty-five years of biomonitoring lead in the Frankfurt/Main area

The present study is an example of the historical monitoring of heavy metals. The specific question it aims to explore is: to what extent has the lead content of selected organisms used for biomonitoring in Frankfurt/Main—one of the cities in Germany most heavily affected by automobile traffic—changed as a result of legislation on leaded gasoline?

Data on the lead content of the moss speciesBryum argenteum Hedw. from the years 1974, 1975 and 1978 and data on the lead content of the outer bark of the ash speciesFraxinus excelsior L. from 1973 served as the basis for the repeated measurements. Remeasurement was successful in 76.5% (i.e. 124 trees at 26 growth sites). The study produced the following results:

• ? As was expected, the lead content of the short-term accumulatorBryum argenteum Hedw. was distinctly lowered with a decreasing particulate lead concentration. However, the reduction factor varied greatly between the different growth sites.
• ? On the other hand, the lead content measured in the outer bark layers ofFraxinus excelsior L. has risen markedly during the past two decades. Whereas in 1973 nearly all trees examined displayed very low concentrations of lead (< 38 ppm), only 9.5% were still in this category in 1997 and nearly 30% exhibited high or even unacceptable lead concentrations (< 150 ppm → > 225 ppm). Various factors have to be taken into account to explain this increase. First of all, bark is a long-term accumulator for heavy metals like lead and its enrichment capacity could have increased as the surface becomes rougher over time. Furthermore, lead is most probably leached out of the bark to a lesser degree now than in the 1970s, owing to the reduced concentration of sulphuric acid in the rain. The dramatic growth of automobile traffic in the Frankfurt/Main area during the period covered by the study undoubtedly plays an important role as well.

     

The Impact of Winter Relocation and Depuration on Norovirus Concentrations in Pacific Oysters Harvested from a Commercial Production Site

Oysters contaminated with norovirus present a significant public health risk when consumed raw. In this study, norovirus genome copy concentrations were determined in Pacific oysters (Magallana gigas) harvested from a sewage-impacted production site and then subjected to site-specific management procedures. These procedures consisted of relocation of oysters to an alternative production area during the norovirus high-risk winter periods (November to March) followed by an extended depuration (self-purification) under controlled temperature conditions. Significant differences in norovirus RNA concentrations were demonstrated at each point in the management process. Thirty-one percent of oyster samples from the main harvest area (Site 1) contained norovirus concentrations >?500 genome copies/g and 29% contained norovirus concentrations <?100 genome copies/g. By contrast, no oyster sample from the alternative harvest area (Site 2) or following depuration contained norovirus concentrations >?500 genome copies/g. In addition, 60 and 88% of oysters samples contained norovirus concentrations <?100 genome copies/g in oysters sampled from Site 2 and following depuration, respectively. These data demonstrate that site-specific management processes, supported by norovirus monitoring, can be an effective strategy to reduce, but not eliminate, consumer exposure to norovirus genome copies.