EU Water Framework Directive and Stockholm Convention Can we reach the targets for priority substances and persistent organic pollutants?

Background, aim and scope  

Water is a renewable resource and acceptable quality is important for human health, ecological and economic reasons, but human activity can cause great damage to the natural aquatic environment. Managing the water cycle in a sustainable way is the key to protect natural resources and human health. On a global level, the microbiological contamination of water sources is a major problem in connection with poverty and the United Nations Millennium Development Declaration is an important initiative to handle this problem. In terms of environmental health, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) circulate globally; as they travel long distances, they are found in remote areas far from their original source of application and can cause damage wherever they move to. On a global scale, United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) issued the Stockholm Convention to reduce POPs; in the European Union (EU), one intention of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) is to reach the good chemical status of waters; beside these regulations, there are other directives in support of these goals. The aim of this paper is to discuss whether the Stockholm Convention and the WFD allows meeting the targets of protection of human and environmental health, which are established in the different directives and how could we approach the targets.     

Determination of total content and isotopic compositions of plutonium and uranium in environmental samples for safeguards purposes by ICP-QMS

The aim of this work was to determine the concentrations and isotopic compositions of plutonium and uranium in environmental samples for safeguards purposes. An analytical method was developed with a plutonium and uranium separation procedure based on extraction chromatography (using 2 mL TEVA and UTEVA columns) and detection with a quadrupole ICP-MS applying an ultra-sonic nebulizer coupled with a membrane desolvation system. Starting from blank swipes, the background equivalent concentration (BEC) was 8 fg for ²³⁹Pu and 1 ng ²³⁸U. The method was successfully applied to certified reference materials as well as to round robin samples obtained in the framework of the inter-laboratory exercise program, promoted by the Brazilian–Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials (ABACC), together with the US Department of Energy (USDOE). After the introduction of an additional ion-exchange separation step, the methodology was applied to the IAEA-384 sediment reference sample with precise and accurate total plutonium and uranium, ²⁴⁰Pu/²³⁹Pu, ²⁴¹Pu/²³⁹Pu, ²³⁴U/²³⁸U and ²³⁵U/²³⁸U atomic ratio results.     

Oxidative stress is an early symptom triggered by aluminum in Al-sensitive potato plantlets

The objective of this study was to evaluate whether the oxidative stress caused by aluminum (Al) toxicity is an early symptom that can trigger root growth inhibition in Macaca (Al-sensitive) and SMIC148-A (Al-tolerant) potato clones. Plantlets were grown in a nutrient solution (pH 4.00) with 0, 100 and 200 mg Al L⁻¹. At 24, 72, 120 and 168 h after Al addition, root length and biochemical parameters were determined. Regardless of exposure time, root length of the Macaca clone was significantly lower at 200 mg Al L⁻¹. For the SMIC148-A clone, root length did not decrease with any Al treatments. Al supply caused lipid peroxidation only in Macaca, in both roots (at 24, 72, 120 and 168 h) and shoot (at 120 and 168 h). In roots of the Macaca, catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activity decreased at 72 and 120 h, and at 24, 72 and 120 h, respectively. At 168 h, both activities increased upon addition of Al. In roots of the SMIC148-A, CAT activity increased at 72 and 168 h, whereas APX activity decreased at 72 h and increased at 24, 12 and 168 h. The Macaca showed lower root non-protein thiol group (NPSH) concentration at 200 mg Al L⁻¹ in all evaluations, but the SMIC148-A either did not demonstrate any alterations at 24 and 72 h or presented higher levels at 120 h. This pattern was also observed in root ascorbic acid (AsA) concentration at 24 and 120 h. The cellular redox status of these potato clones seems to be affected by Al. Therefore, oxidative stress may be an important mechanism for Al toxicity, mainly in the Al-sensitive Macaca clone.     

Increasing interannual and altitudinal ozone mixing ratios in the Catalan Pyrenees

Interannual, seasonal, daily and altitudinal patterns of tropospheric ozone mixing ratios, as well as ozone phytotoxicity and the relationship with NO_x precursors and meteorological variables were monitored in the Central Catalan Pyrenees (Meranges valley and Forest of Guils) over a period of 5 years (2004–2008). Biweekly measurements using Radiello passive samplers were taken along two altitudinal transects comprised of thirteen stations ranging from 1040 to 2300 m a.s.l. Visual symptoms of ozone damage in Bel-W3 tobacco cultivars were evaluated biweekly for the first three years (2004–2006). High ozone mixing ratios, always above forest and vegetation protection AOT40 thresholds, were monitored every year. In the last 14 years, the AOT40 (Apr–Sept.) has increased significantly by 1047 μg m^?3 h per year. Annual means of ozone mixing ratios ranged between 38 and 67 ppb_v (38 and 74 ppb_v during the warm period) at the highest site (2300 m) and increased at a rate of 5.1 ppb_v year^?1. The ozone mixing ratios were also on average 35–38% greater during the warm period and had a characteristic daily pattern with minimum values in the early morning, a rise during the morning and a decline overnight, that was less marked the higher the altitude. Whereas ozone mixing ratios increased significantly with altitude from 35 ppb_v at 1040 m–56 ppb_v at 2300 m (on average for 2004–2007 period), NO₂ mixing ratios decreased with altitude from 5.5 ppb_v at 1040 m–1 ppb_v at 2300 m. The analysis of meteorological variables and NO_x values suggests that the ozone mainly originated from urban areas and was transported to high-mountain sites, remaining aloft in absence of NO. Ozone damage rates increased with altitude in response to increasing O₃ mixing ratios and a possible increase in O₃ uptake due to more favorable microclimatic conditions found at higher altitude, which confirms Bel-W3 as a suitable biomonitor for ozone concentrations during summer time. Compared to the valley-bottom site the annual means of ozone mixing ratios are 37% larger in the higher sites. Thus the AOT40 for the forest and vegetation protection threshold is greatly exceeded at higher sites. This could have substantial effects on plant life at high altitudes in the Pyrenees.     

AnSBBR applied to the treatment of wastewater from a personal care industry: Effect of organic load and fill time

The objective of this work was to study the technological feasibility of treating wastewater from a personal care industry (PCI-WW) in a mechanically stirred anaerobic sequencing batch biofilm reactor (AnSBBR) containing immobilized biomass on polyurethane foam. An assessment was made on how system efficiency and stability would be affected by: increasing organic load; supplementation of nutrients and alkalinity; and different feed strategies. The AnSBBR operated with 8-h cycles, stirring speed of 400 rpm, temperature of 30 °C, and treated with 2.0 L wastewater per cycle. First the efficiency and stability of the AnSBBR were studied when submitted to an organic loading rate (OLR) of 3.1–9.4 gCOD/(L d), and when the PCI-WW was supplemented with nutrients (sucrose, urea, trace metals) and alkalinity. The AnSBBR was shown to be robust and presented stability and removal efficiency exceeding 90%. At an OLR of 12.0 gCOD/(L d) efficiency became difficult to maintain due to the presence of commercial cleansers and disinfectants in the wastewater lots. In a subsequent stage the AnSBBR treated the wastewater supplemented with alkalinity, but with no nutrients at varying feed strategies and maintaining an OLR of approximately 9.0 gCOD/(L d). The first strategy consists of feeding 2.0 L of the influent batchwise [OLR of 9.4 gCOD/(L d)]. In the second 1.0 L of influent was fed-batchwise and an additional 1.0 L was fed fed-batchwise [OLR of 9.2 gCOD/(L d)], i.e., in relation to the first strategy the feed volume was maintained but supplied in different periods. In the third strategy 1.0 L of treated effluent was maintained in the reactor and 1.0 L of influent was fed fed-batchwise [OLR of 9.0 gCOD/(L d)], i.e., in relation to the first strategy the feed volume was different but the feed period was the same and the OLR was maintained by increasing the influent concentration. Comparison of the first and second strategies revealed that organic matter removal efficiency was unaffected (exceeding 90%). The third strategy resulted in a reduction in average removal efficiency from 91 to 83% when compared to the first one. A kinetic study resulted in first order kinetic parameters ranges from 0.42 to 1.46 h⁻¹ at OLRs from 3.1 to 12.0 gCOD/(L d), respectively, and the second feed strategy [OLR of 9.2 gCOD/(L d)] was shown to be the most favorable.     

Empirical research in environmental psychology: Past, present, and future

Have research interests in environmental psychology changed over the years? If so, in which direction? What can we learn from the past to direct future research? To answer these questions, empirical studies published in Environment & Behavior (E&B) and in Journal of Environmental Psychology (JEP), from their foundation to 2005, were reviewed. The articles were classified in relation to the following criteria: mode of human–environment transaction, research topic, type of setting and function of places, socio-demographic characteristics and environmental role of people, mode of presentation of the setting, sampling procedure, and source of data. Results showed both variations through the years and differences between the journals. The main research topics can be identified as the study of the residential environment, environmental cognition, observation of actual behaviour in the environment, and concern for the ecological value of the global environment. Trends in research interests showed a stable interest in the analysis of the built environment, a more place-specific approach in the beginning, strongly anchored in observational studies, and a central concern for sustainability and conservation of the environment in recent years. With respect to journals, the central role attributed to psychology by JEP, and the stronger participation by designers and planners in E&B, are reflected in the emphases given to the different modes of human–environment transaction. Trends in research interests help address the strengths and weaknesses of the discipline, thus suggesting future directions of inquiry.     

Managing Dive Tourism for the Sustainable Use of Coral Reefs: Validating Diver Perceptions of Attractive Site Features

It has been argued that strategies to manage natural areas important for tourism and recreation should integrate an understanding of tourist preferences for specific natural features. However, the accuracy of tourist recalled perceptions of environmental attributes, which are usually derived from post hoc surveys and used to establish management priorities, is currently unmeasured. We tested the validity of the relationship between tourist-stated preferences and actual condition of coral reefs around the Caribbean island of Bonaire. Using standardized questionnaires, we asked 200 divers to select their most and least favorite dive sites and the attributes that contributed to that selection. We also carried out ecological surveys at 76 of the 81 dives sites around the island to assess the actual conditions of the attributes indicated as important for site selection. Fish- and coral-related attributes were key features affecting dive enjoyment. In general, divers appeared to be able to perceive differences between sites in the true condition of biological attributes such as fish species richness, total number of fish schools, live coral cover, coral species richness, and reef structural complexity, although men and women divers differed in their ability to perceive/recall some of the attributes. Perceived differences in environmental attributes, such as surface conditions, underwater current, and the likelihood of encountering rare fish and sea turtles, were not empirically validated. The fact that divers perceive correctly differences in the condition of some of the key biological attributes that affect dive enjoyment reinforces the need to maintain overall reef condition at satisfactory levels. However, variation in accuracy of perceptions owing to demographic factors and attribute type suggests the need for caution when using public perceptions to develop environmental management strategies, particularly for coral reefs.     

Monitoring of polychlorinated biphenyl contamination and estrogenic activity in water, commercial feed and farmed seafood

We evaluated the concentration and congener distribution of seven "target" polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) present in water collected in different aquaculture farms of the Mediterranean area, commercial feeds, and farmed seafood. PCBs were present in feed and in tissues of all the analysed organisms at levels ranging from 1.96 ng g(-1) to 124.00 ng g(-1) wet weight, and in 10.5% of the water samples, at levels from under detection limit to 33.0 ng l(-1) with total PCB concentrations significantly higher in samples from the Tyrrhenian Sea than the Adriatic Sea. PCB congener distribution in tissues resembled that of feed, suggesting that commercial feed is an important source of PCBs. The estrogenicity of organic extracts of the samples was also evaluated by using an in vitro yeast reporter assay. Estrogenic activity higher than 10% of the activity induced by 10 nM 17 beta-estradiol was observed in 20.0% of seafood samples and 15.8% of water samples. Seafood and water samples from the Tyrrhenian Sea were more frequently estrogenic than the Adriatic ones (16.45 versus 4.08%). A significant correlation of total PCB concentrations on biological activity was observed for sea bass and mussels from the Adriatic Sea (p < 0.045 and p < 0.04, respectively), and for sea bass of the Tyrrhenian Sea (p = 0.05). These results indicate the need of an integral approach in the exposure assessment to potential toxic compounds for human via food.     

Distribution of endocrine disruptors in the Mondego River estuary, Portugal

Recent studies in the Mondego River estuary demonstrated signs of pollution in the area, but the nature of the contamination remains unexplored. Because there seems to be any studies in that zone checking for the simultaneous presence of xenoestrogenic endocrine disrupting compounds, either of animal (estradiol and estrone), vegetal (daidzein, genistein and biochanin A), pharmaceutical (17alpha-ethynylestradiol) or industrial (bisphenol A, 4-octylphenol, 4-nonylphenol) origins, the main objective of this study was to investigate their presence, in every year season and at eight points along the estuarine gradient. For this propose, water samples (2 L) were collected in high and low tides, preconcentrated in the Oasis HLB cartridges and cleaned in silica cartridges before their analysis by HPLC-DAD and GC-MS. The current data showed the absence of contamination by animal or pharmaceutical estrogens and by alkylphenols, but demonstrated the presence of high levels of phytoestrogens (up to 1.1 mug/L) and of bisphenol A (up to 880.0 ng/L). Because these two chemicals existed in high environmental concentrations in the most upstream sampling station, and taking in account that these pollutants may additively contribute to endocrine disruption, namely on fish, it was concluded that at least this particularly area of the Mondego estuary deserves continuous monitoring programmes.