Evaluation of the European population intake fractions for European and Finnish anthropogenic primary fine particulate matter emissions

The intake fraction (iF) has been defined as the integrated incremental intake of a pollutant released from a source category or region summed over all exposed individuals. In this study we evaluated the iFs in the population of Europe for emissions of anthropogenic primary fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) from sources in Europe, with a more detailed analysis of the iF from Finnish sources. Parameters for calculating the iFs include the emission strengths, the predicted atmospheric concentrations, European population data, and the average breathing rate per person. Emissions for the whole of Europe and Finland were based on the inventories of the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) and the Finnish Regional Emission Scenario (FRES) model, respectively. The atmospheric dispersion of primary PM_2.5 was computed using the regional-scale dispersion model SILAM. The iFs from Finnish sources were also computed separately for six emission source categories. The iFs corresponding to the primary PM_2.5 emissions from the European countries for the whole population of Europe were generally highest for the densely populated Western European countries, second highest for the Eastern and Southern European countries, and lowest for the Northern European and Baltic countries. For the entire European population, the iF values varied from the lowest value of 0.31 per million for emissions from Cyprus, to the highest value of 4.42 per million for emissions from Belgium. These results depend on the regional distribution of the population and the prevailing long-term meteorological conditions. Regarding Finnish primary PM_2.5 emissions, the iF was highest for traffic emissions (0.68 per million) and lowest for major power plant emissions (0.50 per million). The results provide new information that can be used to find the most cost-efficient emission abatement strategies and policies.     

Dependence on forest resources and tropical deforestation in Ghana

In Ghana, forests provide many products on which the local population subsists. However, these resources are depleting due to a variety of factors including agricultural expansion and over-exploitation of forest resources. This paper presents an analysis of the level of local dependence on forest resources and its implications for forest management in Ghana. The paper also outlines the causes of continuing deforestation in the studied region from the perspective of the local residents and discusses what role they could play in addressing the problem. The aim is to share more light on the current causes of deforestation and make suggestions for improved community-based forest management practices that could help to reduce deforestation. Primary data was collected through personal interviews and focus group discussions with 431 household heads randomly selected from three Forest Districts in Ghana. The survey showed that income from agriculture constituted 60% of the average total rural household income. Forest income provided 38% of total household income, and off-farm income 2%. The four most highly ranked causes of deforestation are poverty-driven agriculture, lack of alternative rural wage employment other than farming, household population levels, and conflict in traditional land practices. This shows a shift in the view of local people who in the past were quick to blame logging companies and government policies for deforestation. The majority of the respondents depended on wild animals like snail, bush meat, wild honey and wild and cultivated vegetables. Given the reasons for deforestation, much thought needs to go into agroforestry practices (e.g. snail farming, bee keeping, fish farming, and vegetable production) in efforts to reduce deforestation, which are currently less promoted. Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

The USGS Water Availability and Use Science Program: Needs,Establishment, and Goals of a Water Census

Many reports have recognized the need for a national water census for the United States and have called upon the U.S. Geological Survey to undertake this challenge. For example, the National Science and Technology Council stated: “The United States has a strong need for an ongoing census of water that describes the status of our Nation's water resource at any point in time and identifies trends over time.” Responding to the need for this information, the U.S. Congress established the SECURE Water Act. The directives are to provide a more accurate assessment of the status of the water resources of the United States; determine the quantity of water available for beneficial uses; identify long‐term trends in water availability; assist in determination of the quality of the water resources; and develop the basis for an improved ability to forecast the availability of water for future economic, energy production, and environmental uses. This article provides summary and new information on the process and progress on work to estimate water budget components nationwide, involvement of stakeholder interests, efforts to examine water‐use characteristics throughout the Nation, studies of water availability in geographically focused areas and the initiation of methods to provide open access to existing and new water resources information contributing to Open Water Data Initiative (OWDI) efforts and objectives.     

Evaluation of air quality by passive and active sampling in an urban city in Turkey: current status and spatial analysis of air pollution exposure

Concentrations of air pollutants, nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)), sulfur dioxide (SO(2)), ozone (O(3)), particulate matter (PM(2.5) and PM(10)), trace metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were measured in 2008 and 2009 in the city of Eski?ehir, central Turkey. Spatial distributions of NO(2), SO(2), and ozone were determined by passive sampling campaigns carried out during two different seasons with fairly large spatial coverage. A basic population exposure assessment was carried out employing Geographical Information System techniques by combining population density maps with pollutant distribution maps of NO(2) and SO(2). It was found that 95 % of the population is exposed to NO(2) levels close to the World Health Organization guideline value. Regarding SO(2), a large proportion of the population (83 %) is exposed to levels above the WHO second interim target value. Concentrations of all the pollutants showed a seasonal pattern increasing in winter period, except for ozone having higher concentrations in summer season. Daily PM(10) and PM(2.5) concentrations exceeded European Union limit values almost every sampling day. Toxic fractions of the measured PAHs were calculated and approximately fourfold increase was observed in winter period. Copper, Pb, Sn, As, Cd, Zn, Sb, and Se were found to be moderately to highly enriched in PM(10) fraction, indicating anthropogenic input to those elements measured. Exposure assessment results indicate the need for action to reduce pollutant emissions especially in the city center. Passive sampling turns out to be a practical and economical tool for air quality assessment with large spatial coverage.     

Nitrogen,Phosphorus, Carbon,and Suspended Solids Loads from Forest Clear-Cutting and Site Preparation: Long-Term Paired Catchment Studies from Eastern Finland

The long-term impacts of current forest management methods on surface water quality in Fennoscandia are largely unexplored. We studied the long-term effects of clear-cutting and site preparation on runoff and the export of total nitrogen (total N), total organic nitrogen (TON), ammonium (NH₄-N), nitrate (NO₃-N), total phosphorus (total P), phosphate (PO₄-P), total organic carbon, and suspended solids (SS) in three paired-catchments in Eastern Finland. Clear-cutting and soil preparation were carried out on 34 % (C34), 11 % (C11), and 8 % (C8) of the area of the treated catchments and wide buffer zones were left along the streams. Clear-cutting and soil preparation increased annual runoff and total N, TON, NO₃-N, PO₄-P, and SS loads, except for SS, only in C34. Runoff increased by 16 % and the annual exports of total N, TON, NO₃-N, and PO₄-P by 18, 12, 270, and 12 %, respectively, during the 14-year period after clear-cutting. SS export increased by 291 % in C34, 134 % in C11, and 16 % in C8 during the 14, 6, and 11-year periods after clear-cutting. In the C11 catchment, NO₃-N export decreased by 12 %. The results indicate that while current forest management practices can increase the export of N, P and SS from boreal catchments for many years (>10 years), the increases are only significant when the area of clear cutting exceeds 30 % of catchment area.     

Is the Water Footprint an Appropriate Tool for Forestry and Forest Products: The Fennoscandian Case

The water footprint by the Water Footprint Network (WF) is an ambitious tool for measuring human appropriation and promoting sustainable use of fresh water. Using recent case studies and examples from water-abundant Fennoscandia, we consider whether it is an appropriate tool for evaluating the water use of forestry and forest-based products. We show that aggregating catchment level water consumption over a product life cycle does not consider fresh water as a renewable resource and is inconsistent with the principles of the hydrologic cycle. Currently, the WF assumes that all evapotranspiration (ET) from forests is a human appropriation of water although ET from managed forests in Fennoscandia is indistinguishable from that of unmanaged forests. We suggest that ET should not be included in the water footprint of rain-fed forestry and forest-based products. Tools for sustainable water management should always contextualize water use and water impacts with local water availability and environmental sensitivity.     

Control Technologies for Remediation of Contaminated Soil and Waste Deposits at Superf und Lead Battery Recycling Sites

This paper primarily addresses remediation of contaminated soils and waste deposits at defunct lead-acid battery recycling sites (LBRS) via immobilization and separation processes. A defunct LBRS is a facility at which battery breaking, secondary lead smelting, or both operations were performed for the primary purpose of reclaiming lead from spent lead-acid batteries. Metallic lead and lead compounds are generally the principal contaminants of concern in soils and waste deposits (i.e., buried, piled, landfilled waste) at these sites. Other metals (e.g., cadmium, copper, arsenic, antimony, and selenium) are often present at LBRS, but usually at much lower concentrations than lead and often present below hazardous concentrations. This article is primarily based on experience gained from: (1) Superfund site investigation, removal, and remedial actions, and (2) development and demonstration of control technologies under the Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation (SITE) Program. The primary remedial options for lead contaminated soils and waste deposits include: (1) no action, (2) off-site disposal, (3) containment, (4) immobilization, (5) separation with resource recovery, and (6) separation without resource recovery. In spite of the toxicity of lead at low concentrations, the relative immobility of lead and site-specific risk assessments can still result in the selection of no action or containment remedies. Solidification/stabilization of lead-contaminated soils has been implemented at three Superfund sites and is the selected remedy at several others. Separation technologies (e.g., screening, extraction) are attractive because, if successful, they actually remove the contaminant from the environmental media. Separation technologies also offer the possibility that a valuable product (e.g., lead, plastic, energy) can be recovered, but careful consideration of economic and technical factors are required. Compared to the implementation of containment and solidification I stabilization remedies, separation technologies tend to be relatively novel, complex, and costly.     

Effects of SO2 on the photosynthetic and respiration rates in scots pine seedlings

Exposure to moderate concentrations (90-500 microg SO(2) m(-3)) of SO(2) for 5-30 days caused a decrease in the photosynthetic rate. Only the lowest concentration (30 microg SO(2) m(-3)) increased photosynthesis. There was hardly any recovery in photosynthesis after the exposure. All exposure concentrations increased dark respiration. However, the lowest concentration had the smallest effect. Exposure to high concentration (2320 microg SO(2) m(-3)) of SO(2) for 5 h caused a strong decrease in the photosynthetic rate but there was a complete recovery within 2 weeks.     

Metal contamination of vineyard soils in wet subtropics (southern Brazil)

The vine-growing areas in Brazil are the dampest in the world. Copper maximum value registered in this study was as much as 3200 mg kg(-1), which is several times higher than reported for vineyard soils in temperate climates. Other pesticide-derived metals accumulate in the topsoil layer, surpassing in the old vineyards the background value several times for Zn, Pb, Cr and Cd. Copper is transported to deeper soils' horizons and can potentially contaminate groundwater. The soils from basaltic volcanic rocks reveal the highest values of Cu extracted with CaCl(2), demonstrating a high capacity of copper transference into plants. When evaluating the risks of copper's toxic effects in subtropics, the soils from rhyolitic volcanic rocks are more worrisome, as the Cu extracted with ammonium acetate 1M surpasses the toxic threshold as much as 4-6 times.     

A synthesis of the impacts of ditch network maintenance on the quantity and quality of runoff from drained boreal peatland forests

Drained peatlands are an important source of forest biomass in boreal regions and ditch network maintenance (DNM) operations may be needed to restore the drainage functions of ditches. By reviewing the available literature, as well as utilizing an existing hydrological model and analyzing the characteristics of eroded sediments, we assessed the impacts of DNM on runoff and exports of suspended solids (SS), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P). In general, DNM had minor impact on runoff and dissolved N and P, and it decreased rather than increased DOC exports. To increase the understanding of the hydrochemical impacts of DNM, future research should focus on the characteristics of SS and particulate nutrient exports. A major gap in knowledge is also the very limited regional representativeness of the available studies. High erosion risk in the ditches reaching the mineral soil below peat should be acknowledged when planning mitigation measures.