A strategy for the next decade to address data deficiency in neglected biodiversity

Measuring progress toward international biodiversity targets requires robust information on the conservation status of species, which the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species provides. However, data and capacity are lacking for most hyperdiverse groups, such as invertebrates, plants, and fungi, particularly in megadiverse or high-endemism regions. Conservation policies and biodiversity strategies aimed at halting biodiversity loss by 2020 need to be adapted to tackle these information shortfalls after 2020. We devised an 8-point strategy to close existing data gaps by reviving explorative field research on the distribution, abundance, and ecology of species; linking taxonomic research more closely with conservation; improving global biodiversity databases by making the submission of spatially explicit data mandatory for scientific publications; developing a global spatial database on threats to biodiversity to facilitate IUCN Red List assessments; automating preassessments by integrating distribution data and spatial threat data; building capacity in taxonomy, ecology, and biodiversity monitoring in countries with high species richness or endemism; creating species monitoring programs for lesser-known taxa; and developing sufficient funding mechanisms to reduce reliance on voluntary efforts. Implementing these strategies in the post-2020 biodiversity framework will help to overcome the lack of capacity and data regarding the conservation status of biodiversity. This will require a collaborative effort among scientists, policy makers, and conservation practitioners.     

Saving power to conserve your reputation? The effectiveness of private versus public information

Environmental damage is often an unseen byproduct of other activities. Disclosing environmental impact privately to consumers can reduce the costs and/or increase the moral benefits of conservation behaviors, while publicly disclosing such information can provide an additional motivation for conservation - cultivating a green reputation. In a unique field experiment in the residence halls at the University of California – Los Angeles, we test the efficacy of detailed private and public information on electricity conservation. Private information was given through real-time appliance level feedback and social norms over usage, and public information was given through a publicly visible conservation rating. Our analysis is based on 7,120 daily observations about energy use from heating and cooling, lights and plug load for 66 rooms collected over an academic year. Our results suggest that while private information alone was ineffective, public information combined with private information motivated a 20 percent reduction in electricity consumption achieved through lower use of heating and cooling. Public information was particularly effective for above median energy users.     

The role of Greenland sharks (Somniosus microcephalus) in an Arctic ecosystem: assessed via stable isotopes and fatty acids

The Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus) is the only shark species known to inhabit ice-covered seas in the North Atlantic, but remains a missing component in most studies of Arctic food webs. In the present study, stable isotopes (SIs) of nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) and carbon (δ¹³C) and fatty acids (FAs) were analyzed to identify the role of Greenland sharks (sampled during June 2008–2009) in Kongsfjorden, a productive fjord on the west coast of Svalbard, Norway (~79ºN, 12–13ºE). The Greenland shark fed at a high trophic position (4.8) based on δ¹⁵N values, and δ¹³C confirmed that most (70 %) of their carbon was derived from phytoplankton-based food chains, which is consistent with a heavy reliance on pelagic teleosts and seals. Greenland sharks from Kongsfjorden had fatty acid profiles in both muscle and plasma (e.g., low 20:1n-9, high 22:5n-3) that suggested a low portion of Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) and high proportion of gadoids and seals in their diet compared to Greenland sharks sampled in Cumberland Sound, Canada, during April 2008, which were previously shown to derive much of their energy from Greenland halibut. The high proportions of seal fatty acids in both slow- (muscle) and fast- (plasma) turnover tissues indicate that trophic interactions between Greenland sharks and seals in Kongsfjorden are a common occurrence. Results from the present study suggest that Greenland sharks likely play a unique and significant role in Arctic marine food webs as a top predator of fishes and marine mammals.     

Experimental investigation of false positive errors in auditory species occurrence surveys

False positive errors are a significant component of many ecological data sets, which in combination with false negative errors, can lead to severe biases in conclusions about ecological systems. We present results of a field experiment where observers recorded observations for known combinations of electronically broadcast calling anurans under conditions mimicking field surveys to determine species occurrence. Our objectives were to characterize false positive error probabilities for auditory methods based on a large number of observers, to determine if targeted instruction could be used to reduce false positive error rates, and to establish useful predictors of among-observer and among-species differences in error rates. We recruited 31 observers, ranging in abilities from novice to expert, who recorded detections for 12 species during 180 calling trials (66,960 total observations). All observers made multiple false positive errors, and on average 8.1% of recorded detections in the experiment were false positive errors. Additional instruction had only minor effects on error rates. After instruction, false positive error probabilities decreased by 16% for treatment individuals compared to controls with broad confidence interval overlap of 0 (95% CI:--46 to 30%). This coincided with an increase in false negative errors due to the treatment (26%;--3 to 61%). Differences among observers in false positive and in false negative error rates were best predicted by scores from an online test and a self-assessment of observer ability completed prior to the field experiment. In contrast, years of experience conducting call surveys was a weak predictor of error rates. False positive errors were also more common for species that were played more frequently but were not related to the dominant spectral frequency of the call. Our results corroborate other work that demonstrates false positives are a significant component of species occurrence data collected by auditory methods. Instructing observers to only report detections they are completely certain are correct is not sufficient to eliminate errors. As a result, analytical methods that account for false positive errors will be needed, and independent testing of observer ability is a useful predictor for among-observer variation in observation error rates.     

Seasonal patterns in fatty acids of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Calanus hyperboreus</Emphasis> (Copepoda,Calanoida) from Cumberland Sound,Baffin Island,Nunavut

The marine copepod Calanus hyperboreus accumulates large quantities of lipids and essential fatty acids during summer months in Northern oceans. However, few data exist regarding their winter fatty acid profiles, which could be informative regarding the use of lipids by C. hyperboreus to successfully survive and reproduce during times of ice-cover and limited food. The present study compared fatty acids of C. hyperboreus between summer (August 2007 and 2008) and winter (early April 2008 and 2009) in Cumberland Sound, Canada. Summer samples from both years had significantly higher ∑polyunsaturated fatty acids and unsaturation indices (based on μg fatty acid mg dry tissue⁻¹) than winter samples and separated on a principal component analysis due to higher 18:2n-6, 18:4n-3, and 20:5n-3, consistent with phytoplankton consumption. Winter C. hyperboreus had significantly higher ∑monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) versus summer samples and separated on the principal component analysis due to higher proportions of 16:1n-7, 20:1n-9, and 22:1n-9, suggesting they were not actively feeding. Based on the seasonal fatty acid comparison, C. hyperboreus was catabolizing specific fatty acids (e.g. 20:5n-3), conserving others (e.g. 22:6n-3), and maintaining or increasing biosynthesis of certain MUFA (e.g. 18:1n-9) during winter. These findings provide insight into the seasonal strategy of acquisition (summer) and utilization (winter) of specific fatty acids by a key Arctic organism and could become important for monitoring changes in fatty acids associated with decreased ice-cover duration due to climate warming.     

Underlying causes of habitat-associated differences in size of age-0 walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) in the Gulf of Alaska

Age-0 walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) caught in September in the Gulf of Alaska display habitat-associated differences in standard length (SL). Age-0 fish collected in the region around Sutwik Island and 375?km farther downstream near the Shumagin Islands most likely originate from the Shelikof Strait spawning aggregation. However, age-0 fish resulting from the same spawning aggregation differ in mean size up to 20?mm between areas by September. We examined the otoliths of the larval and age-0 stages of walleye pollock from these two areas in 2000 and 2001 to determine whether growth rate, hatch date, and/or temperature influenced fish size. Circulation models were used to determine whether transport of larvae from an upstream spawning group into the study areas could have occurred. Mean in situ temperature during sampling periods was not defined as a significant factor in altering growth rates. Overlapping hatch date distributions of the larval and age-0 fish in the Shumagin Island area confirmed that the fish were from the Shelikof Strait spawning group. Comparison of hatch date distributions in the upstream Sutwik Island area revealed larger/older larvae from an upstream spawning group mixed with larvae from the Shelikof Strait spawning group. Our results suggest that the offset of 20?mm SL between the groups of age-0 pollock was the result of a combination of enhanced survivorship of early-hatched larvae in the Sutwik area and the introduction and retention of the progeny of another spawning group originating upstream of Shelikof Strait.     

Monitoring and reporting attacks on education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Somalia

The United Nations' Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism is charged with documenting six grave violations against children in a time of conflict, including attacks on schools. Many of these incidents, however, remain unreported across the globe. This study explores whether or not a local knowledge base of education and child protection actors in North and South Kivu Provinces, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and in Mogadishu, Somalia, could contribute to a more complete record of attacks on education in those areas. Hundreds of semi‐structured interviews were conducted with key informants across the three settings, and in total 432 attacks on education were documented. Purposive samples of these reports were verified and a large majority was confirmed. Local non‐governmental organisations and education institutions were most knowledgeable about these incidents, but most never reported them to a monitoring authority. The study concludes that attack surveillance and response were largely insufficient, and recommends investing in mechanisms that utilise local knowledge to address these shortcomings.     

Driver Workload Response to In-Vehicle Device Operations

A central concern of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) is the effect of in-vehicle devices (e.g., cell phones, navigation systems, radios, etc.) on driver performance and safety. As diverse and innovative technologies are designed and implemented for in-vehicle use, questions regarding the presence and use of these devices assume progressively greater importance. Further concerns for advanced driver training require us to develop and validate reliable and effective procedures for assessing such effects. This work examines a number of candidate procedures, in particular the evaluation of change in cognitive workload as a strategy by which such goals might be achieved.