Gender aspects in the management of water

Water resources increasingly need to meet the demands and needs of different sectors and to be protected against deteriorating quantity and quality. This paper discusses the different interests of men and women in the use of water resources, and what effects the neglect of female interests in particular, has on development. The authors stress that besides class and ethnic differences, the different interests of men and women also play a role in the cross-sectoral management of water resources. Water pricing, property rights and management structures are three key aspects where a gender approach is required. In the management of water resources in smaller catchment areas, several instruments for a gender approach have been developed. Discussed are gender specific participatory research, planning and tools, gender in management organizations and task divisions and involvement of multidisciplinary teams with a gender orientation.     

Effect of cobalt sorption on metal fractionation in anaerobic granular sludge

A sequential extraction procedure was applied to two anaerobic methanogenic sludges (Eerbeek and Nedalco) to examine the speciation of micro- and macronutrients in the sludges after cobalt sorption by exposing the sludge to a 1 mM Co solution for 4 d at pH 7 and 30 degrees C. The effect of different physicochemical conditions on cobalt sorption was studied as well: effect of pH (6-8), effect of competition by a second trace element (Ni or Fe), modification of the granular matrix by glutaraldehyde or heat treatment, and EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) addition. Sorbed Co was found to distribute between the carbonates, organic matter + sulfides, and residual fractions. Cobalt adsorption resulted in an antagonistic interaction with other metals present in the granular matrix, evidenced by the solubilization of other trace elements (e.g., Ni, Cu, and Zn) as well as macronutrients (especially Ca and Fe). Modification of the sludge matrix by glutaraldehyde or heat treatment, or exposure to EDTA, led to serious modifications of the Co sorption capacity and strong interactions with multivalent cations (i.e., Ca(2+) and Fe(2+)).     

Nitrogen cycling through swine production systems: ammonia, dinitrogen, and nitrous oxide emissions

Ammonia (NH(3)) emissions from animal systems have become a primary concern for all of livestock production. The purpose of this research was to establish the relationship of nitrogen (N) emissions to specific components of swine production systems and to determine accurate NH(3) emission factors appropriate for the regional climate, geography, and production systems. Micrometeorological instrumentation and gas sensors were placed over two lagoons in North Carolina during 1997-1999 to obtain information for determining ammonia emissions over extended periods and without interfering with the surrounding climate. Ammonia emissions varied diurnally and seasonally and were related to lagoon ammonium concentration, acidity, temperature, and wind turbulence. Conversion of significant quantities of ammonium NH(4)(+) to dinitrogen gas (N(2)) were measured in all lagoons with the emission rate largely dependent on NH(4)(+) concentration. Lagoon NH(4)(+) conversion to N(2) accounted for the largest loss component of the N entering the farm (43% as N(2)); however, small amounts of N(2)O were emitted from the lagoon (0.1%) and from field applications (0.05%) when effluent was applied nearby. In disagreement with previous and current estimates of NH(3) emissions from confined animal feeding operation (CAFO) systems, and invalidating current assumptions that most or all emissions are in the form of NH(3), we found much smaller NH(3) emissions from animal housing (7%), lagoons (8%), and fields (2%) using independent measurements of N transformation and transport. Nitrogen input and output in the production system were evaluated, and 95% of input N was accounted for as output N from the system.     

Effect of manure application timing, crop, and soil type on phosphorus leaching

Phosphorus (P) leaching losses from manure applications may be of concern when artificial drainage systems allow for hydrologic short-cuts to surface waters. This study quantified P leaching losses from liquid manure applications on two soil textural extremes, a clay loam and loamy sand soil, as affected by cropping system and timing of application. For each soil type, manure was applied at an annual rate of 93 800 L ha(-1) on replicated drained plots under maize (Zea mays L.) in early fall, late fall, early spring, and as a split application in early and late spring. Manure was applied on orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) in split applications in early fall and late spring, and early and late spring. Drain water was sampled at least weekly when lines were flowing, and outflow rate and total P content were determined. High P leaching losses were measured in the clay loam as soon as drain lines initiated flow after manure application. Flow-weighted mean P leaching losses on clay loam plots averaged 39 times higher (0.504 mg L(-1)) than those on loamy sand plots (0.013 mg L(-1)), and were above the USEPA level of concern of 0.1 mg L(-1). Phosphorus losses varied among application seasons on the clay loam soil, with highest losses generally measured for early fall applications. Phosphorus leaching patterns in clay loam showed short-term spikes and high losses were associated with high drain outflow rates, suggesting preferential flow as the main transport mechanism. Phosphorus leaching from manure applications on loamy sand soils does not pose environmental concerns as long as soil P levels remain below the saturation level.     

Space use optimisation and sustainability-environmental assessment of space use concepts

In this paper, as part of a diptych, we discuss the factor space as a means of improving the environmental performance of building projects. There are indicators for space use efficiency and several more or less broadly supported methods for assessment of environmental issues such as ecological quality, use of building materials and energy consumption. These are discussed in this paper. Assessment methods coupling space use to environmental indicators had not been available until now. Beforehand, plans with different spatial properties could therefore not be environmentally compared. We present a method for the implementation of space use in assessments concerning sustainability. This method was applied to the urban case study presented in our second paper in this journal. In this paper, we also present solutions for improved environmental performance through intensive and multiple use of space in the second, third and fourth dimension.     

Reproductive health in Afghanistan: results of a knowledge, attitudes and practices survey among Afghan women in Kabul

A reproductive-health knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) survey was carried out among 468 Afghan women of reproductive age. A convenience sample of women was selected from attendees in the outpatient departments of four health facilities in Kabul. Seventy-nine per cent of respondents had attended at least one antenatal consultation during their last pregnancy. Two-thirds (67 per cent) delivered their first child between 13 and 19 years. The Caesarean-section rate was low (1.6 per cent). Two-thirds (67 per cent) of deliveries occurred in the home. The contraceptive prevalence rate was 23 per cent (16 per cent modern and 7 per cent natural methods). Twenty-four per cent had knowledge of any STIs, although most of these women did not know correctly how to prevent them. Most of the women (93 per cent) needed authorization from their husband or a male relative before seeking professional health-care. In multivariate analysis, women's schooling was significantly associated with antenatal-care attendance (AOR 4.78), institutional delivery (AOR 2.29), skilled attendance at birth (AOR 2.07) and use of family planning (AOR 4.59). Reproductive-health indicators were noted to be poor even among these women living in Kabul, a group often considered to be the most privileged. To meet the reproductive-health needs of Afghan women, the socio-cultural aspects of their situation--especially their decision-making abilities -- will need to be addressed. A long-standing commitment from agencies and donors is required, in which the education of women should be placed as a cornerstone of the reconstruction process of Afghanistan.     

Roles of land use resolution and unit-area load rates in assessment of diffuse nutrient emissions

In contrast to its counterparts in Europe and North America, the Australian National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) includes estimates of aggregated emissions of nutrients (total nitrogen and total phosphorus) from catchments and facilities. Sparse or inadequate data limit the extent to which nutrient exports may be estimated from direct observations. The paucity of data for calibration and simulation limits the use of sophisticated models in most Australian catchments. Therefore, a simple unit-area load model-Catchment Management Support System (CMSS)-was selected to estimate aggregated catchment emissions for the NPI. Estimates from models like CMSS are sensitive to spatial and categorical resolution of land uses identified within the catchment and to nutrient generation rates selected for each land use category. Using three Hawkesbury-Nepean subcatchments, we show that while high spatial resolution of land use mapping is useful, only four or five major land use categories with carefully selected generation rates were required to estimate potential nutrient exports sufficiently well and to determine subcatchments contributing most. Nutrient emission estimates proved to be highly dependent on selection of generation rates so a bootstrap technique was adopted to reduce subjectivity and to improve estimates of confidence limits. This led to a specification of new generation rates for Natural, Unimproved pasture, Rural and Urban land uses and to establishment of uncertainty limits.     

Assessment of spatial variation of cesium-137 in small catchments

Surface contamination by bomb-derived and Chernobyl-derived 137Cs has been subject to changes due to physical decay and lateral transport of contaminated soil particles, which have resulted in an on-going transfer of radionuclides from terrestrial ecosystems to surface water, river bed sediments, and flood plains. Knowledge of the different sources of spatial variation of 137Cs is particularly essential for estimating 137Cs transfer to fluvial systems and for successfully applying 137Cs as an environmental tracer in soil erosion studies. This study combined a straightforward sediment redistribution model and geostatistical interpolation of point samples of 137Cs activities in soil to distinguish the effects of sediment erosion and deposition from other sources of variation in 137Cs in the small Mochovce catchment in Slovakia. These other sources of variation could then be interpreted. Besides erosion and deposition processes, the initial pattern of 137Cs deposition, floodplain sedimentation, and short-range spatial variation were identified as the major sources of spatial variation of the 137Cs inventory.