A theoretical integration of leader emergence and leadership effectiveness: Over,under, and congruent emergence

There is a long and rich history of research on the concept of leader emergence. Much of this research positions leader emergence alongside leadership effectiveness as an epiphenomenal criterion in leadership research. Although this view has enhanced our understanding of factors that influence leader emergence and leadership effectiveness individually, our understanding of the potential alignment or misalignment of these concepts remains opaque. Following from this, we are left with unanswered questions concerning how, why, and under what conditions do the right or wrong leaders emerge or fail to emerge. Theory that develops insights into these questions is needed to advance our understanding of leadership and to cope with challenges of identifying and developing effective leaders and maximizing leadership potential in organizations. By integrating theories of leader emergence and leadership effectiveness—and considering their implications jointly—we provide a conceptual basis for identifying and understanding a more complete range of leader emergence than has been suggested in the literature. Importantly, our theoretical frame explains how our leader emergence types—over-emergence, under-emergence, congruent emergence, and congruent non-emergence—are differentially associated with a common set of factors. In doing so, we illuminate tradeoffs that might accompany different interventions intended to enhance leadership in organizations.     

Assessing alternatives for mitigating net greenhouse gas emissions and increasing yields from rice production in China over the next twenty years

Assessments of the efficacy of mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from paddy rice systems have typically been analyzed based on field studies. Extrapolation of the mitigation potential of alternative management practices from field studies to a national scale may be enhanced by spatially explicit process models, like the DeNitrification and DeComposition (DNDC) model. Our objective was to analyze the impacts of mitigation alternatives, management of water, fertilizer, and rice straw, on net GHG emissions (carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide fluxes), yields, and water use. After constructing a GIS database of soil, climate, rice cropping area and systems, and management practices, we ran DNDC with 21-yr alternative management schemes for each of the approximately 2500 counties in China. Results indicate that, despite large-scale adoption of midseason drainage, there is still large potential for additional methane reductions from Chinese rice paddies of 20 to 60% over 2000-2020. However, changes in management for reducing CH4 emissions simultaneously affect soil carbon dynamics as well as N2O emissions and can thereby reorder the ranking of technical mitigation effectiveness. The order of net GHG emissions reduction effectiveness found here is upland rice > shallow flooding > ammonium sulfate > midseason drainage > off-season straw > slow-release fertilizer > continuous flooding. Most of the management alternatives produced yields comparable to the baseline; however, continuous flooding and upland rice significantly reduced yields. Water management strategies appear to be the most technically promising GHG mitigation alternatives, with shallow flooding providing additional benefits of both water conservation and increased yields.     

Do national levels of individualism and internal locus of control relate to well‐being: an ecological level international study

Data were collected from managers in 24 nations/territories on work locus of control (LOC), individualism–collectivism (I–C), and well‐being (job satisfaction, absence of psychological strain, and absence of physical strain). There were significant mean differences across samples on all five of these measures, and consistent with our hypothesis, at the ecological or sample mean level well‐being was associated with an internal locus of control. However, contrary to our hypothesis, well‐being was not associated with I–C, despite a strong correlation between I–C and LOC. Findings at the ecological level were consistent with the literature concerning the salutary effects of control on well‐being. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

MANAGING THE COLORADO RIVER IN A SEVERE SUSTAINED DROUGHT AN EVALUATION OF INSTITUTIONAL OPTIONS1

ABSTRACT: This paper presents a summary of the findings and recommendations of the studies of severe, sustained drought reported in this special issue. The management facilities and institutions were found to be effective in protecting consumptive water users against drought, but much less effective in protecting nonconsumptive uses. Changes in intrastate water management were found to be effective in reducing the monetary value of damages, through reallocating shortages to low-valued uses, while only water banking and water marketing, among the possible interstate rule changes, were similarly effective. Players representing the basin states and the federal government in three gaming experiments were unable to agree upon and effect major changes in operating rules. The conclusions are (1) that nonconsumptive water uses are highly vulnerable to drought, (2) that consumptive uses are well-protected, (3) that drought risk is greatest in the Upper Basin, (4) that the Lower Basin suffers from chronic water shortage but bears little drought risk, (5) that opportunities exist for win-win rule changes, (6) that such rule changes are extremely difficult to make, and (7) that intrastate drought management is very effective ^m in reducing potential damages.     

HYDROLOGIC ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES FOR REGIONAL WATER RESOURCES PLANNING1

The emphasis upon comprehensive regional water resources planning in the past decade has encouraged the hydrologic engineer to take advantage of improvements in technology to develop new hydrologic engineering techniques for use in regional planning studies. The new techniques are necessary because the traditional hydro-logic engineering techniques are not always consistent with the increased scope and diversified objectives of regional planning studies. The Hydrologic Engineering Center has been involved in aiding in the development of some of these new techniques as the result of studies that have been made in cooperation with other Corps of Engineers offices. Most of the new techniques being developed emphasize computational procedures developed specifically for use with electronic computers. Applications of new techniques range from framework studies to planning of day-to-day operation criteria. Studies recently completed or in progress include: (1) development of a regional flood control site screening plan for the North Atlantic Region study; (2) use of streamflow simulation for planning and operation of the Missouri River mainstem projects; (3) development of an operation plan for the Arkansas-White-Red Rivers Reservoir System; (4) standard project flood and flood frequency estimates for the Colorado River Basin Framework Study; and several other projects which are described in more detail in the following paragraphs. One of the initial efforts in regional analysis was the formulation of procedures for determining standard project flood estimates for southern California coastal streams using generalized criteria. Techniques were developed that were readily adaptable to the computer and which would determine representative unit hydrographs, losses and standard project precipitation for any location in the study area. The resulting standard project flood estimates were consistent with the accuracy required for framework studies; however, they could be refined easily for design studies. As a result of the recent drought in the Northeastern United States, a study was made to evaluate both present and future water supply reservoirs in that region. The study consisted of computerized studies of the hypothetical operation of a large number of reservoirs as a system. The reservoirs were on many different streams throughout the region and had varying constraints, depending upon the stream and the state in which the reservoir was located. Since only preliminary data was available on the proposed reservoirs, it was not possible to refine the studies to a large degree. However, the models of each system can be easily refined as more accurate design data become available. The development of a computer-aided screening procedure for use in evaluating several hundred potential reservoir sites for the Missouri River Basin Comprehensive Framework Study is a third example of regional analysis. The adopted procedures used available physical, hydrologic, and climatologic data in estimating reservoir storage requirements throughout the basin. Because the procedure is based upon the techniques often used in more refined studies, it is expected that the results of the screening study will be very useful in future planning and design work. Shortcomings of some of the traditional techniques have helped in the development of new techniques. For maximum usefulness the new techniques should: (1) be consistent with the scope, objectives, and requirements of the overall study; (2) use all available physical, hydrologic, and climatologic data without requiring extensive data which may not be available; (3) take full advantage of the capabilities of the computer and associated data processing systems; and (4) produce results which form a firm basis for future, more detailed, planning and design studies instead of being limited in usefulness largely to the study at hand.     

TRANSPORT AND DISTRIBUTION OF NUTRIENTS IN THE LOXAHATCHEE RIVER ESTUARY,SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA, 1979–811

ABSTRACT: Concentrations of total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and total organic carbon in the Loxahatchee River estuary decreased with increasing salinity in a manner indicating that mixing and dilution of freshwater by seawater was the primary process controlling the down-stream concentrations of nutrients. Most of the nutrients in the surface freshwater inflows entered the estuary from five major tributaries; however, about 10 percent of the total nitrogen and 32 percent of the total phosphorus were from urban stormwater runoff. The input of nutrients was highly seasonal and storm related. During a 61-day period of above average rainfall that included Tropical Storm Dennis, the major tributaries discharged 2.7 metric tons of total phosphorus, 75 metric tons of total nitrogen, and 1,000 metric tons of organic carbon to the estuary. This period accounted for more than half of the total nutrient load from the major tributaries during the 1981 water year (October 1, 1980, through September 30, 1981). Inorganic phosphorus and nitrogen increased relative to total phosphorus and nitrogen during storm runoff. Nutrient yield from the basin, expressed as grams per square meter of basin area, was relatively low. However, because the basin area (544 square kilometers) is large compared with the volume of the estuary, the basin might be expected to contribute significantly to estuarine enrichment were it not for tidal flushing. Approximately 60 percent of the total volume of the estuary is flushed on each tide. Because the estuary is well flushed, it probably has a large tolerance for nutrient loading.     

Choosing how to choose: Comparing amalgamation methods for environmental impact assessment

Amalgamation, in which disparate impacts are combined so that alternatives can be ranked, has become an important part of many impact assessments. Such methods can help make decisions more rational by systematically combining great amounts of information into more digestible forms. They can also facilitate public participation and ease documentation of decisions. The intent of this article is to give an overview of amalgamation methods and to propose four criteria for choosing among them: the purpose to be served, ease of use, validity, and results compared to other methods. Because experiments have repeatedly shown that the method chosen can significantly affect what decision is made, EIA practitioners should place more emphasis on the last two criteria than they have in the past. Finally, recent results in psychology and management science are discussed for practitioners facing the question “how do we choose how to choose?”     

Mapping and Modeling the Biogeochemical Cycling of Turf Grasses in the United States

Turf grasses are ubiquitous in the urban landscape of the United States and are often associated with various types of environmental impacts, especially on water resources, yet there have been limited efforts to quantify their total surface and ecosystem functioning, such as their total impact on the continental water budget and potential net ecosystem exchange (NEE). In this study, relating turf grass area to an estimate of fractional impervious surface area, it was calculated that potentially 163,800 km² (± 35,850 km²) of land are cultivated with turf grasses in the continental United States, an area three times larger than that of any irrigated crop. Using the Biome-BGC ecosystem process model, the growth of warm-season and cool-season turf grasses was modeled at a number of sites across the 48 conterminous states under different management scenarios, simulating potential carbon and water fluxes as if the entire turf surface was to be managed like a well-maintained lawn. The results indicate that well-watered and fertilized turf grasses act as a carbon sink. The potential NEE that could derive from the total surface potentially under turf (up to 17 Tg C/yr with the simulated scenarios) would require up to 695 to 900 liters of water per person per day, depending on the modeled water irrigation practices, suggesting that outdoor water conservation practices such as xeriscaping and irrigation with recycled waste-water may need to be extended as many municipalities continue to face increasing pressures on freshwater.     

CONSUMPTIVE USE OF STREAMFLOW INCREASES IN THE COLORADO RIVER BASIN1

ABSTRACT: This study examined the disposition of streamflow increases that could be created by vegetation management on forest land along the upper reaches of the Colorado River. A network optimization model was used to simulate water flow, storage, consumptive use, and loss within the entire Colorado River Basin with and without the flow increases, according to various scenarios incorporating both current and future consumptive use levels as well as existing and potential institutional constraints. Results indicate that very little of the flow increases would be consumptively used at current use levels, or even at future use levels, if water allocation institutions remain unchanged. Given future use levels and economically based water allocation institutions, up to one-half of the flow increases could be consumptively used. The timing of streamflow increases, and the institutional constraints on water allocation, often limit the potential for consumptive use of flow increases.