The behaviour of maintenance and the intensive husbandry of cattle,sheep and pigs

A major feature of our living environment consists of the domesticated animals. As their use intensifies so too does the obligation to them — and to their basic life practices — which we acquired at the moment of their domestication. Much of the behaviour of farm animals is concerned with self-maintenance, indeed, highly successful self-maintenance is the basis of animal productivity. Activities involved in such maintenance appear to fall into eight primary categories. These are basically of innate origin and include much instinctive behaviour. The use of these behaviours of reactivity, ingestion, exploration, movement, association, body care, territorialism and rest are vital to the animal in its integration and mediation with its environment. Within these eight primary systems of behaviour, numerous specific behaviours are exhibited in natural free-ranging conditions. Cattle exhibit 44 specific behaviours related to maintenance; sheep have 43 and pigs show 48. All of these above behaviours require environmental facility and where this is deficient, deficits occur in behaviour.Ethological deficits have been determined for methods of husbandry relating to the intensive production of calves, steers, sheep and pigs. Veal calves had 25 behavioural deficits, feedlot cattle had 11, housed sheep had 13 and enstalled swine had 26. These figures give indices of behavioural deprivation ranging from 25% in feedlot cattle to 56% in veal calves in stalls.Anomalous behaviour is now increasingly seen among animals which are managed under close confinement; restricted accommodation in an essentially featureles environment. Much of the anomalous behaviour which has been investigated is found to be the result of aversive environments. Anomalous behaviours are typically found in those forms of husbandry which involve intense grouping of animals and also a lack of what might be termed diversionary facilities in their environment. Reduced input of environmental stimulation and opportunity is evidently capable of acting with adverse effect on functional mediation, so as to generate anomalous forms of behaviour such as “orosthenia” — pathological oral activity. Such abnormal behaviour serves as a symptom of confinement stress. In animal production the application of ethology can provide a monitoring operation for livestock care to ensure welfare and ethological entitlement.     

Feeding under predation hazard: response of the guppy and Hart's rivulus from sites with contrasting predation hazard

Summary Populations of guppies, Poecilia reticulata and Hart's rivulus, Rivulus harti, in Trinidad experience different levels of predation hazard from piscivorous fish. Those from the larger rivers (downstream sites) experience chronically high predation hazard, while those from headwater streams (upstream sites) have few predators. Guppies and Hart's rivulus, collected from downstream and upstream sites, were assayed for their feeding rate in the presence and absence of predators. We defined tenacity as the ratio of the feeding rates in the presence and absence of a predator stimulus. Thus, tenacity expresses the degree to which the forager maintains its feeding rate when a predator stimulus is present. Previous work by Seghers (1973) showed that non-feeding guppies from downstream sites responded more strongly to predators than did guppies from upstream sites. Based on this, we initially hypothesized that fish from downstream sites would show lower tenacities than fish from upstream sites. However, we found the opposite in every case. When confronted with a predator stimulus, guppies and Hart's rivulus from downstream sites fed at consistently greater rates and displayed greater tenacities than did those from upstream sites. These differences were found in experiments using both live and model predators. The results suggest that upstream fish readily trade off feeding for hiding and avoiding predation hazard, a likely response when predators appear infrequently, while downstream fish appear to be selected for boldness and tenacity while foraging under chronically high hazard.     

Connectivity of wood thrush breeding,wintering, and migration sites based on range‐wide tracking

Many migratory animals are experiencing rapid population declines, but migration data with the geographic scope and resolution to quantify the complex network of movements between breeding and nonbreeding regions are often lacking. Determining the most frequently used migration routes and nonbreeding regions for a species is critical for understanding population dynamics and making effective conservation decisions. We tracked the migration of individual Wood Thrushes (Hylocichla mustelina) (n = 102) from across their range with light‐level geolocators and, for the first time, quantified migration routes and wintering regions for distinct breeding populations. We identified regional and species‐level migratory connectivity networks for this declining songbird by combining our tracking results with range‐wide breeding abundance estimates and forest cover data. More than 50% of the species occupied the eastern wintering range (Honduras to Costa Rica), a region that includes only one‐third of all wintering habitat and that is undergoing intensive deforestation. We estimated that half of all Wood Thrushes in North America migrate south through Florida in fall, whereas in spring approximately 73% funnel northward through a narrow span along the central U.S. Gulf Coast (88–93°W). Identifying migratory networks is a critical step for conservation of songbirds and we demonstrated with Wood Thrushes how it can highlight conservation hotspots for regional populations and species as a whole. Conectividad de Sitios de Reproducción, Invierno y Migración del Zorzal con Base en Rastreo de Cobertura Amplia     

Armed sibling rivalry among suckling piglets

Summary A piglet's most precious possession Is the teat that he fattens his flesh on. He fights for his teat with tenacity Against any sibling's audacity. The piglet, to arm for this mission, Is born with a warlike dentition Of eight tiny tusks, sharp as sabres, Which help in impressing the neighbors; But to render these weapons less harrowing, Most farmers remove them at farrowing. We studied pig sisters and brothers When some had their teeth, but not others. We found that when siblings aren't many, The weapons help little if any, But when there are many per litter, The teeth help their owners grow fitter. But how did selection begin To make weapons to use against kin? Offprint requests to: D. Fraser     

Decision Support for Road System Analysis and Modification on the Tahoe National Forest

The United States Forest Service is required to analyze road systems on each of the national forests for potential environmental impacts. We have developed a novel and inexpensive way to do this using the Ecosystem Management Decision Support program (EMDS). We used EMDS to integrate a user-developed fuzzy logic knowledge base with a grid-based geographic information system to evaluate the degree of truth for assertions about a roads environmental impact. Using spatial data for natural and human processes in the Tahoc National Forest (TNF, California, USA), we evaluated the assertion the road has a high potential for impacting the environment. We found a high level of agreement between the products of this evaluation and ground observations of a TNF transportation engineer, as well as occurrences of road failures. We used the modeled potential environmental impact to negatively weight roads for a least-cost path network analysis to 1573 points of interest in the forest. The network analysis showed that out of 8233 km of road analyzed in the forest, 3483 km (42%) must be kept in a modified road network to ensure access to these points. We found that the modified network had improved patch characteristics, such as significantly fewer cherry stem roads intruding into patches, an improved area-weighted mean shape index, and larger mean patch sizes, as compared to the original network. This analysis system could be used by any public agency to analyze infrastructure for environmental or other risk and included in other mandated analyses such as risks to watersheds.     

COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF LAND COVER DATA SOURCES FOR EROSION PREDICTION1

ABSTRACT: A fundamental problem in protecting surface drinking water supplies is the identification of sites highly susceptible to soil erosion and other forms of nonpoint source (NPS) pollution. The New York City Department of Environmental Protection is trying to identify erodible sites as part of a program aimed at avoiding costly filtration. New York City's 2,000 square mile watershed system is well suited for analysis with geographic information systems (GIS); an increasingly important tool to determine the spatial distribution of sensitive NPS pollution areas. This study used a GIS to compare three land cover sources for input into the Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE), a model estimating soil loss from rangeland and forests, for a tributary watershed within New York City's water supply system. Sources included both conventional data (aerial photography) and Landsat data (MSS and TM images). Although land cover classifications varied significantly across these sources, location-specific and aggregate watershed predictions of the MUSLE were very similar. We conclude that using Landsat TM imagery with a hybrid classification algorithm provides a rapid, objective means of developing large area land cover databases for use in the MUSLE, thus presenting an attractive alternative to photo interpretation.     

Licensing resource tracts : A comparison of auction and discretionary systems

This paper uses simulations of a model of a company's decision about the maximum bid value and the optimal investment programme for a resource tract to compare the auction and discretionary systems of licence allocation. The modle includes uncertainty about the size of resource stock and the selling price of extracted resource, as well as risk aversion on the part of the company. It is concluded that an auction system provides the government both with better information about a company's perception of the value of a resource tract and with the potential for considerably higher revenue from its licensing.     

How shell cleaned up a 400,000-gallon oil spill

On April 23, 1988, approximately 9,500 barrels (400,000 gallons) of San Joaquin Valley crude oil leaked from an aboveground storage tank at Shell Oil Company's Martinez Manufacturing Complex in Martinez, California and entered Suisun Bay, an important recreation area. This article describes the remediation techniques Shell used to protect and clean up the Bay's oiled marshes, sloughs, rocky shores, marinas, and sandy beaches, and discusses the main methods of oil spill response, site-specific factors that must be considered in choosing remediation techniques, the interaction between Shell and government agencies, and the costs associated with the spill. The cleanup's total cost was approximately $8.3 million, which did not include private claims and claims handling costs; Shell also signed a separate consent decree for $19.75 million with the state of California and the federal government. This spill and its aftermath emphasize the need for preparation that facilitates response actions, improves the chances for cooperation between responsible parties and government agencies, minimizes the time needed for remediation, lowers cleanup costs, and limits natural resource damage claims and penalties.     

Convenience improves composting and recycling rates in high-density residential buildings

Increasing volumes of solid waste, implicated in environmental pollution and health problems, are central to the current environmental crisis. In two randomized field experiments, we demonstrate that convenience dramatically boosts recycling and composting rates in multi-family dwellings and university residences. When compost bins were placed on each floor in a multi-family residence, instead of on the ground floor, composting rates increased by 70%, diverting 27 kilograms of compost from the landfill per unit per year. When recycling stations were placed just meters from suites in student residences, instead of in the basement, recycling increased by 147% (container), and 137% (paper), and composting increased by 139%, diverting 23, 22, and 14 kilograms of containers, paper, and compost, respectively, from the landfill per person per year. Simply making recycling and composting convenient can significantly increase waste diversion, and as such this single intervention has important implications for waste management and environmental policy.